SOURCES

v
the epigraph: Griffith Edwards, "Drug Problems UK/USA," Anglo-American Conference on Drug Abuse: Proceedings of a Conference Sponsored Jointly by the Royal Society of Medicine and the Royal Society of Medicine Foundation, Inc., 16-18 April 1973, ed. R. A. Bowen (London: Royal Society of Medicine, 1973), p. 2.
4
1874: C. R. A. Wright, "On the Action of Organic Acids and Their Anhydrides on the Natural Alkaloids. Part I," Journal of the Chemical Society 27 (1874) :1031, 1037.
4
1898: H. Dreser, "Pharmakologisches über einige Morphinderivate," Therapeutische Monatshefte 12 (September 1898) :509512; Floret, "Klinische Versuche über die Wirkung und Anwendung des Heroins," ibid., 512; H. Dreser, "Pharmakologisches über Aspirin (Acetylsalicylsäure)," Archiv für die Gesammte Physiologie 76 (1899) :306 and n.
4
Congress of Naturalists: reported in Journal of the American Medical Association 31 (12 November 1898) :1176.
5
other clinicians: e.g., Morris Manges, New York Medical Journal 68 (26 November 1898) :768-770; and Lancet 1898 (2) ( 3 December) :1511, (24 December) :1744.
5
call for 'English tests: Lancet 1898 (2) (3 December):1486.
5-7
lawful heroin: United Nations, International Narcotics Control Board, Estimated World Requirements of Narcotic Drugs and Estimates of World Production of Opium in 1974 (E/INCB/22) (New York: United Nations, 1973), passim.
5-6
chemistry: Wright, "On the Action of Organic Acids," p. 1037; Arthur Osol and Robertson Pratt, eds., The United States Dispensatory, 27th ed. (Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott Co., 1973), p. 409; British Pharmacopoeia 1973 (London: HMSO, 1973), entries for diamorphine hydrochloride, p. 153, morphine sulphate, pp. 310-311; Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain, Martindale: The Extra Pharmacopoeia, 26th ed., ed. Norman W. Blacow (London: Pharmaceutical Press, 1972), pp. 1100, 1114-1116; Lyndon F. Small and Robert E. Lutz, Chemistry of the Opium Alkaloids, Supplement 103 to the Public Health Reports (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1932), pp. 146, 153-154; Roger Lewin, "A Step Towards Safer Morphine," New Scientist 61 (10 January 1974) :64-65.
6
fifty million dollars: see, e.g., John F. Holahan, "The Economics of Heroin," Dealing with Drug Abuse: A Report to the Ford Foundation (New York: Praeger, 1972) , p. 290; and Edward A. Preble and John J. Casey, Jr., "Taking Care of Business-the Heroin User's Life on the Street," International Journal of the Addictions 4 (March 1969) :8.
7
neurobiology: G. Manner, F. F. Foldes, Marilyn Kuleba, and Ann M. Deery, "Morphine Tolerance in a Human Neuroblastoma Line," Experientia 30 (1974) :137-138; Michael J. Kuhar, Candace B. Pert, and Solomon H. Snyder, "Regional Distribution of Opiate Receptor Binding in Monkey and Human Brain," Nature 245 (26 October 1973) :447-450; Candace B. Pert, Gavril Pasternak, and Solomon H. Snyder, "Opiate Agonists and Antagonists Discriminated by Receptor Binding in Brain," Science 182 (28 December 1973):13591361; Louise I. Lowney, Karin Schulz, Patricia Lowery, and Avram Goldstein, "Partial Purification of an Opiate Receptor from Mouse Brain," Science 183 (22 February 1974) :749753.
8-9
heroin in British medicine: Pharmaceutical Society, Martindale, pp. 1114-1116; Stanley Alstead, "Analgesics and Hypnotics," Textbook of Medical Treatment, 12th ed., eds. Stanley Al-stead, Alastair G. Macgregor, and Ronald H. Girdwood (Edinburgh and London: Churchill Livingstone, 1971), pp. 442-443. See also references cited for the controversy in 1955, over possible discontinuance of heroin production, below, note to pp. 29-30.
8
heroin and cancer: C. Saunders, "The Treatment of Intractable Pain in Terminal Cancer," Proceedings of the Royal Society of Medicine 56 (1963) :195-197; Cicely Saunders, The Management of Terminal Illness (London: Hospital Medical Publications, 1967), pp. 17, 18; R. G. Twycross, "Principles and Practice in the Relief of Pain in Terminal Cancer," Update (London) 5 (July 1972):117-118.
9
heroin and coronaries: H. R. MacDonald, H. A. Rees, A. L. Muir, D. M. Lawrie, J. L. Burton, and K. W. Donald, "Circulatory Effects of Heroin in Patients with Myocardial Infarction," Lancet 1967 (1) :1070-1074. Interviews, Home Office, August 1972, and with British physicians at various times.
9
heroin and surgery: C. W. Reichle, G. M. Smith, J. S. Gravenstein, S. G. Macris, and H. K. Beecher, "Comparative Analgesic Potency of Heroin and Morphine in Postoperative Patients," Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics 136 (1962) :43-46; Pharmaceutical Society, Martindale, p. 1115.
9
heroin and shingles: Henry Miller, Medicine and Society (London: Oxford University Press, 1973), p. 9.
11
Vera Institute's proposal: analysis and comparison with the British approach to heroin addiction, below, part 3, pp. 126-139. Staff of the Vera Institute of Justice prepared a memorandum, Heroin Research and Research and Rehabilitation Program (New York: Vera Institute of Justice, Inc., May 1971) ; a year later, a reworked version was made public: Charles E. Riordan and Leroy C. Gould, Proposal for the Use of Diacetyl Morphine (Heroin) in the Treatment of Heroin Dependent Individuals (New York: Vera Institute of Justice, Inc., May 1972). For the controversy aroused by the proposal, and the idea of "treatment lure," see James M. Markham, "What's All This Talk of Heroin Maintenance?" The New York Times Magazine, 2 July 1972, p. 6 et seq.
11
legal heroin and crime: see, e.g., Norval Morris, "Crimes Without Victims," The New York Times Magazine, 1 April 1973, p. 10 et seq., particularly pp. 59-60.
11
U.K. addiction statistics: table, below, p. 159.
11
U.S. addiction statistics: these vary, depending on the source as well as the year. Mid-1972, the Bureau of Narcotics and Dangerous Drugs estimated 565,000 addicts in the United States (confirmed by conversation with press office); a similar figure, 560,000 appears in a paper by an employee of B.N.D.D., Edward Lewis, Jr., "A Heroin Maintenance Program in the United States?" Journal of the American Medical Association 223 (29 January 1973):546. Yet, in January 1973, the B.N.D.D. revised its estimate to 626,000 addicts in the United States (confirmed by telephone with B.N.D.D. in June 1973). The New York City figures are from interviews in June 1972 with Graham Finney and Robert Newman, medical director of the city's methadone programs; these numbers, too, were rechecked in June 1973. See also, e.g., Graham S. Finney and Raymond H. Godfrey, Jr., "Heroin Addiction and Drug Abuse in New York," City Almanac 6 (April 1972) :3; and the letter to the editor of The New York Times by Norman E. Zinberg and Charles E. Riordan, 23 June 1972, p. 36.
12
Griffith Edwards: interview, August 1972, Institute of Psychiatry, London.
13
policemen and missionaries: one recent book supersedes other sources: David F. Musto, The American Disease: Origins of Narcotics Control (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1973) , pp. 25-40, 49-53.
14
Harrison Act: United States, Public Acts of the Sixty-third Congress, P.L. 223, "An Act to provide for the registration of, with collectors of internal revenue, and to impose a special tax upon all persons who produce, import, manufacture, compound, deal in, dispense, sell, distribute, or give away opium or coca leaves, their salts, derivatives, or preparations, and for other purposes," 63rd Cong., 3rd less., 17 December 1914.
14
a dollar a year: ibid., Sec. 1.
14
legitimate practice, good faith: ibid., Sec. 2, Sec. 8; Musto, The American Disease, p. 125.
14-15
regulations and court decisions: Charles E. Terry and Mildred Pellens, The Opium Problem (New York: Bureau of Social Hygiene, 1928), pp. 753-770; Musto, The American Disease, pp. 63-68, 121-150.
15
medical protests: e.g., Illinois Medical Journal 30 (August 1916) : 143-144; New York Medical Journal 103 (27 May 1916) : 1036; Medical Record, New York 99 (1 January 1921) :18, 20.
170    Sources for pages
15-18
15
U.S. clinics: Musto, The American Disease, pp. 140-141, 147-182.
15
structure of treaties: United Nations, Office of Public Information, The United Nations and the Fight Against Drug Abuse (New York: United Nations, 1972), pp. 7-15.
16
two federal acts of 1970: Lorrin M. Koran, "Heroin Maintenance for Heroin Addicts: Issues and Evidence," New England Journal of Medicine 288 (29 March 1973) :655-656; John Ruhnka, "Legal Authorization," Appendix B in Riordan and Gould, Vera Institute Proposal, pp. B1—B2. Interview, Elmer Gardner.
16
secret tussle: G. F. McLeary, Ministry of Health, to Sir Malcolm Delevingne, Home Office, 27 June 1919; Delevingne to Mc-Leary, 7 July 1919, Great Britain, Public Record Office, quoted in Edwards, "Drug Problems UK/USA," p. 5.
17
Dangerous Drugs Act, 1920: 10 & 11 Geo. 5, Ch. 46.
17
Home Office and prohibition: Edwards, "Drug Problems UK/USA," p. 5, gives information from archives not yet public, but which I have been able to verify independently; see also Great Britain, Ministry of Health, Departmental Committee on Morphine and Heroin Addiction, 1926, the Report of the Rolleston Committee (London: HMSO, 1926), p. 7, where the Home Office view (which was in fact Delevingne's strong personal conviction) is discussed. (Cited henceforth as Rol-leston, Report.)
17-18
debate: Great Britain, Parliamentary Debates (Commons) , 5th ser., 130 (1920) :723.
18
Campbell's trip: Harry Campbell, "The Pathology and Treatment
Sources for pages    171
18-23
of Morphia Addiction," British Journal of Inebriety 20 (April 1923) : 150-151.
18-19
strength of medical profession: see, e.g., Michael Foot, 2 vols. Aneurin Bevan, vol. 2 (London: Davis-Poynter, 1973) , pp. 137, 152, 188-189.
19
British medical opinion: e.g., in a memorandum prepared by medical advisers to the Ministry of Health and transmitted, with comments, in a letter from G. F. McLeary of the Ministry of Health to Delevingne, Home Office, 5 March 1923.
19-20
Rolleston: obituary, Lancet 1944 (2) (7 October) :487-488; L. G. Wickham Legg and E. T. Williams, eds., The Dictionary of National Biography, 1941-1950 (London: Oxford University Press, 1959) , pp. 733-734.
20
central issue: Rolleston, Report, p. 7.
21
committee's conclusion (the stable addict): ibid., p. 18.
21
weakness and surrender: speech by John E. Ingersoll, Director, Bureau of Narcotics and Dangerous Drugs, to the California Peace Officers Association, Anaheim, California, 24 May 1972; text from B.N.D.D.
22
prosecutions in 1925: H. B. Spear, "The Growth of Heroin Addiction in the United Kingdom," British Journal of Addiction 64 (1969) :246, table 1.
22-23
two issues of administration: Rolleston, Report, pp. 24-26.
23
confusion and Consumers Union: Edward M. Brecher and the
172    Sources for pages
25-30
editors of Consumer Reports, Licit and Illicit Drugs: The Consumers Union Report (Boston: Little, Brown, 1972), p. 177.
25
1936 and later statistics: Spear, "Growth of Heroin Addiction," p. 247, table 2a.
27
addicts in 1950: ibid.; interviews, Home Office, August and December 1972.
28
"Mark": Spear, "Growth of Heroin Addiction," p. 251, where, however, he gets the date of the burglary wrong. Saunders came to trial 17 October 1951, and was sentenced to two years in prison: London Evening News, 17 October; Daily Mirror, 19 October; Express, 19 October; News of the World, 20 October 1951.
28
six Nigerians: Spear, "Growth of Heroin Addiction," lists five, but
six is correct (Spear, personal communication, July 1973).
29
Lloyd-George's announcement: Great Britain, Parliamentary Debates (Commons) , 5th ser., 537 (1955) , "Written Answers to Questions," col. 94. The ensuing controversy was extensively covered in The British Medical Journal, The Lancet, and The Times. I have verified details and added others through interviews and from cabled reports to Time magazine from the London bureau of the Time-Life News Service in December 1955. See, in particular, Lancet 1955 (1) :965, 1218, 1227, 1271, 1277-1278, 1311-1312 (leading article with thorough recapitulation); and Lancet 1955 (2) :148, 1143, 1180-1181 (another summary of events) , 1183-1184, 12501252 (the penultimate parliamentary debates, but confusing about dates) , 1333-1335 (climax in House of Lords) .
29-30
U.S. pressure through U.N.: conversation, Sir Harry Greenfield,
Sources for pages    173
30-34
president, International Narcotics Control Board of the United Nations, in London, April 1973; Lancet 1955 (1) :1277; Lancet 1955 (2):1180-1181, 1183-1184.
30
drift of medical opinion: Lancet 1955 (1) :1311-1312; Lancet 1955 (2) :148, 1183-1184. British Pharmacopoeia 1953: no entry for diamorphine.
31
pains, stockpiling: The Times, 19 November 1955, p. 6; 23 November, p. 10, and letters.
32
newspapers: The Times, 1 December 1955, first leader.
32
Macleod: Parliamentary Debates (Commons), 5th ser., 547 (1955) :27.
32
Lloyd-George: ibid., cols. 530-534.
32
December 13: Parliamentary Debates (Lords), 5th ser., 195 (1955) :16-17.
33
Haden-Guest: ibid., cols. 58-59.
34
Teviot: ibid., col. 62.
34
Amulree: ibid., col. 83.
34
government decision: ibid., cols. 91-94. See also, throughout the debate, The Times, "Parliamentary Report," 14 December 1955, p. 4; Lancet 1955 (2) :1333-1335; these are more informative about the temper of proceedings, and sometimes more accurate about words actually said, since Hansard is subject to silent emendation.
174    Sources for pages
34-36
34
Brain Committee: The Interdepartmental Committee on Drug Addiction, Sir Russell Brain, chairman, was appointed on 3 June 1958. It issued an interim report on a couple of minor questions, and then: Great Britain, Ministry of Health, and Department of Health for Scotland, Drug Addiction: Report of the Interdepartmental Committee, 29 November 1960 (London: HMSO, 1961), hereafter cited as Brain I. The committee was reconvened in July 1964, and issued another report: Great Britain, Ministry of Health, and Scottish Home and Health Department, Drug Addiction: The Second Report of the Interdepartmental Committee, 31 July 1964 (London: HMSO, 1965) , hereafter Brain II.
35
no cause to fear: Brain I, pp. 9, 11.
35
tribunals: ibid., p. 12.
35
specialized centers: ibid., p. 10.
35-36
Brain's talk: Sir Russell Brain, "The Report of the Interdepartmental Committee on Drug Addiction," ("Delivered before the Society for the Study of Addiction . . . [in] London on April 18th, 1961"), British Journal of Addiction 57 (1961) :81103 including discussion.
36
rise in addiction: Spear, "Growth of Heroin Addiction," tables, pp. 247-248.
36
Benjamin's objection: Brain's talk, "The Report . .. on Drug Addiction," discussion, pp. 92-93, 102; telephone interview with Irving Benjamin, London, January 1973.
36
reaction to Benjamin: Brain's talk, "The Report    on Drug
Addiction," discussion, pp. 94, 101.
Sources for pages    175
38    46
38
one consultant recalled: interview, Mitcheson, August 1972.
38
doubling every sixteen months: Thomas H. Bewley, Oved Ben-Arie, and I. Pierce James, "Morbidity and Mortality from Heroin Dependence, 1: Survey of Heroin Addicts Known to Home Office," British Medical Journal 1968 (1) :726.
39-40
prescribing doctors: interviews, extensive; among others, Pierce James, Mitcheson, Chapple. Brain II, p. 6, asserts that "the evidence further shows that not more than six doctors have prescribed these very large amounts of dangerous drugs for individual patients . . ." and this figure has been repeated very widely, even by people who know there were more.
40
treatment centers shut down: interviews, Freedman, October 1973, Finney, July 1972.
41
Lady Frankau: details from several interview sources; Brain II, p. 6; I. M. Frankau and Patricia M. Stanwell, "The Treatment of Drug-Addiction," Lancet 1960 (2):1377.
42-43
good doctors: interviews, Home Office, August 1972; Chapple. John Hewetson and Robert 011endorff, "Preliminary Survey of One Hundred London Heroin and Cocaine Addicts," British Journal of Addiction 60 (1964) :109-114.
43-44
statistics and Table: Spear, "Growth of Heroin Addiction," tables, p.. 247-248.
45
scarcity of cannabis: Spear, "Growth of Heroin Addiction," pp. 249-251.
45-46
pill taking: Kenneth Leech, Pastoral Care and the Drug Scene (London: S.P.C.K., 1970), pp. 13-21.
176    Sources for pages
46-51
46
blacks rare among addicts: interviews, Home Office, July and August 1972; Statistics and Research Division, Department of Health and Social Security, August 1972; Ian Pierce James, August 1972. I. Pierce James, "The Changing Pattern of Narcotic Addiction in Britain, 1959 to 1969," International Journal of the Addictions 6 (March 1971):124; Leech, Pastoral Care and the Drug Scene, pp. 29, 30.
46
drug use in Soho: ibid., p. 67.
47
drugs and social class, age, etc.: interviews, Home Office, Pierce James, Mitcheson. E. R. Bransby, "A Study of Patients Notified by Hospitals as Addicted to Drugs: First Report," Health Trends (London, Department of Health and Social Security) 3 (November 1971) :75-78; G. V. Stimson, Heroin and Behaviour (Shannon: Irish University Press, 1973), pp. 6670; Leech, Pastoral Care and the Drug Scene, p. 29.
48-49
addiction and crime: interviews, Commander Robert Huntley, New Scotland Yard, January 1973; Ian Pierce James, August 1972. I. Pierce James and P. T. D'Orbán, "Patterns of Delinquency among British Heroin Addicts," Bulletin on Narcotics 22 (April—June 1970) :13-19, quotation from p. 19; I. Pierce James, "Delinquency and Heroin Addiction in Britain," British Journal of Criminology 9 (April 1969):108-124; Stimson, Heroin and Behaviour, pp. 74, 151-154.
49-51
Canadian addicts: interviews, Home Office, Zacune. H. B. Spear and M. M. Glatt, "The Influence of Canadian Addicts on Heroin Addiction in the United Kingdom," British Journal of Addiction 66 (1971) :141-149; J. Zacune, "A Comparison of Canadian Narcotic Addicts in Great Britain and in Canada," Bulletin on Narcotics 23 (October—December 1971) :41-49.
51
sick and dying: interviews, Thomas Bewley, August 1972 and (by
Sources for pages    177
55-59
telephone) December 1973. Bewley, Ben-Arie, and James, "Morbidity and Mortality," pp. 725, 726.
55
the coming consensus: Thomas Bewley, "Heroin and Cocaine Addiction," Lancet 1965 (1) (10 April) :808-810.
56
doctors and patients: interview, Edwards, London, December 1973.
56
second report: Brain II, pp. 12, 7. See above, note to p. 34.
57
compulsory detention: Brain II, p. 9.
57
huddled through: for a highly personal account, see Kenneth Leech, Keep the Faith Baby (London: S.P.C.K., 1973), especially pp. 37-46.
57
1,290 addicts: Spear, "Growth of Heroin Addiction," p. 250, table 3.
58
Swan and Petro: details from various interviews, August 1972 and August 1973; from Margaret Tripp, August 1972; and others including youths who knew one or the other of them. Partial account in Leech, Keep the Faith Baby, pp. 42-46. And, for Swan, The Times, 14 June 1968, p. 3; 8 August 1968, p. 2; 22 July 1969, p. 2 (his application for a new trial); 25 February 1970, p. 2 (account of hearing before the General Medical Council). For Petro, The Times, 12 January 1968, p. 1; Daily Mirror, 12 January 1968, p. 1 (his arrest after Frost program) ; The Times, 1 June 1968, p. 1 (Petro to be struck off medical register); 27 June 1968, p. 3 (prescribing to addicts while awaiting appeal); 29 October 1968, p. 3.
59
fundamental aim of centers: Griffith Edwards, "Relevance of American Experience of Narcotic Addiction to the British Scene,"
178    Sources for pages
64-78
British Medical Journal 1967 (3) :425, 428. Edwards, "Drug Problems UK/USA," pp. 2, 5.
64
modification of long-tern approach: e.g., leading article, British Medical Journal 1971 (2) :321.
67
Lexington scales of abstinence: Lawrence Kolb and C. K. Himmelsbach, "Clinical Studies of Drug Addiction, III: A Critical Review of the Withdrawal Treatments with a Method for Evaluating Abstinence Syndromes," American Journal of Psychiatry 94 (January 1938) :759-799; C. K. Himmelsbach, "The Morphine Abstinence Syndrome, Its Nature and Treatment," Annals of Internal Medicine 15 (October 1941) :829839.
67
fake withdrawal: interview, Connell, August 1972.
67-68
addicts' doses in England: interviews, Home Office, Tripp, Mitcheson, Pierce James, Oppenheim; dosage levels rechecked August 1973.
72-73
Philip Connell and withdrawal syndrome: interview, August 1972; rechecked with Dr. Connell, including the description of his research.
74
1700: John Jones, The Mysteries of Opium Revealed (London: Richard Smith, 1700), p. 20.
75-76
1968 experimental addiction: Ian Oswald, "Personal View," British Medical Journal 1969 (1) (February 15) :438.
78
teens or twenties: Spear, "Growth of Heroin Addiction," tables, p. 248; Great Britain, Home Office Drugs Branch, "United Kingdom Statistics of Drug Addiction and Criminal Offences
Sources for pages    179
78-82
Involving Drugs" (London: Home Office, yearly), 1973, sheets 1 and 3.
78
recent study: Herbert H. Blumberg, S. Daryl Cohen, B. Elizabeth Dronfield, Elizabeth A. Mordecai, J. Colin Roberts, David Hawks, "British Opiate Users: I. People Approaching London Drug Treatment Centres," International Journal of the Addictions 9 (1974): (in press).
78
multiple-drug use: ibid.
78
startling number: ibid.; David V. Hawks, "The Evaluation of Measures to Deal with Drug Dependence in the United Kingdom," in Anglo-American Conference on Drug Abuse, Proceedings . . . 16-18 April 1973, ed. R. A. Bowen (London: Royal Society of Medicine, 1973), p. 115; E. R. Bransby, Gail Curley, and Maryla Kotulanska, "A Study of Patients Notified by Hospitals as Addicted to Drugs: Second Report," Health Trends 5 (1973) :17-20. Interviews, Roberts, Hawks.
80
pilot study: Douglas H. Powell, "A Pilot Study of Occasional Heroin Users," Archives of General Psychology 28:586-594.
81
availability of drugs: Blumberg, Cohen, Dronfield, Mordecai,
Roberts, and Hawks, "British Opiate Users: I" (in press) .
82
addiction seen differently: ibid.; N. H. Rathod, "The Use of Heroin and Methadone by Injection in a New Town," British Journal of Addiction 67 (1972) :113-121; R. de Alarcón, "The Spread of Heroin Abuse in a Community," Bulletin on Narcotics 21 (July—September 1969) :17-22; Adèle Kosviner, M. C. Mitcheson, Kenneth Myers, Alan Ogborne, G. V. Stimson, Jim Zacune, and Griffith Edwards, "Heroin Use in a Provincial Town," Lancet 1968 (1) :1189-1192; Jim Zacune, Martin Mitcheson, and Sarah Malone, "Heroin Use in a Provincial
180    Sources for pages
82-88
Town—One Year Later," International Journal of the Addictions 4 (December 1969) :557-570.
82
differences and similarities in groups: Jock Young, The Drugtakers: The Social Meaning of Drug Use (London: MacGibbon and Kee, 1971) ; citation is to paperback ed. (London: Palladin, 1971) , pp. 41-42, 47, 85-87; Jock Young, "Drug Use as Problem-Solving Behavior: A Subcultural Approach," Anglo-American Conference on Drug Abuse, Proceedings . . . 16-18 April 1973, ed. R. A. Bowen (London: Royal Society of Medicine, 1973) , pp. 77-78. Interviews, Chapple, Bewley, Mitcheson, Tripp, Mack and Norvill.
82
Edwards: interview, December 1973.
83
Stimson and Ogborne: G. V. Stimson and A. C. Ogborne, "A Survey of a Representative Sample of Addicts Prescribed Heroin at London Clinics," Bulletin on Narcotics 22 (October—December 1970) :13-22; Stimson, Heroin and Behaviour, especially the analysis and follow-up of the four types of addicts, pp. 130-206.
85
policies of clinic staffs: e.g., Herbert H. Blumberg, S. Daryl Cohen, B. Elizabeth Dronfield, Elizabeth A. Mordecai, J. Colin Roberts, and David Hawks, "British Opiate Users: II. Differences Between Those Given an Opiate Script and Those Not Given One," International Journal of the Addictions 9 (1974) :205220.
86
no central direction: interviews, Home Office and Department of Health and Social Security.
88
All Saints', Birmingham: interview, Edward David Hill, at the Birmingham clinic, August 1972. John Owens, "Centers for Treatment of Drug Addiction: Integrated Approach," British Medical Journal 1967 (2) :501-502.
Sources for pages    181
89-99
89
urinalyses: for the techniques available to the clinics at the time, D. J. Berry, J. Grove, B. Widdop, and J. H. P. Willis, "The Detection of Drugs of Dependence in Urine," Bulletin on Narcotics 22 (July—September 1970) :31-37. Errors can occur: see J. G. Montalvo, C. B. Scrignar, E. Alderette, E. Harper, and D. Eyer, "Flushing, Pale-colored Urines, and False Negatives: Urinalysis of Narcotic Addicts," International Journal of the Addictions 7 (1972) :355-364.
94-95
clinic staffing: interviews, Department of Health and Social Security, August, 1972; and with clinic directors previously noted, passim.
95
New York psychiatrists: telephone query to New York City branch office of American Psychiatric Association, June 1974.
95
New York doctors: New York State Board of Medical Examiners, computer printout of roster, 28 October 1973, provided to Medical Society of State of New York.
96-97
present clinic practices: interviews, as previously noted; observation at clinics at University College Hospital and Hackney Hospital, August and September 1972.
98
statistics: Home Office, "United Kingdom Statistics of Drug Addiction," 1973, sheets 1, 2, and 3.
99
ninety-eight who died: Thomas Bewley, unpublished research; interview with him, August 1972; the point rechecked with him, April 1974.
99
methylamphetamine epidemic: interviews, Home Office, Mitcheson, Tripp. I. Pierce James, "A Methylamphetamine Epidemic?"
182    Sources for pages
100-105
letter to Lancet 1968 (1) :916; Philip Connell, Amphetamine
Psychosis (London: Oxford University Press, 1958), p. 129.
100
methylamphetamine and multiple-drug use: Martin Mitcheson, "Polydrug Abuse," Community Health 1969, reprinted in ABC of Drug Addiction (Bristol: John Wright and Sons, 1970) , pp. 89-93; Martin Mitcheson, James Davidson, David Hawks, Laura Hitchens, and Sarah Malone, "Sedative Abuse by Heroin Addicts," Lancet 1970 (1) :606-607; Leech, Pastoral Care and the Drug Scene, pp. 18-20, 67; Leech, Keep the Faith Baby, pp. 46-48; Margaret Tripp, "Who Speaks for Petro?" Drugs and Society 3 (November 1973):12-17. Interviews, Mitcheson, Connell, and Pierce James, August 1972.
101
"keep them alive": interview, James Willis.
101
pills in U.S.: interviews, Mitcheson, March 1973; Freedman, October 1973. Darryl S. Inaba, George R. Gay, John A. Newmeyer, and Craig Whitehead, "Methaqualone Abuse: `Luding Out'," Journal of the American Medical Association 224 (11 June 1973) :1505-1509; Emil F. Pascarelli, "Methaqualone Abuse, the Quiet Epidemic," Journal of the American Medical Association 224:1512.
102
lawful pills: B. M. Barraclough, "Are There Safer Hypnotics than Barbiturates?" Lancet 1974 (1) (12 January) :57-58.
102-105
Chinese heroin: various interviews, August, September, December 1972, August 1973; interview, Huntley, New Scotland Yard, January 1973; interview, Aitken, December 1973.
104
convictions: Great Britain, Home Office, Report to the United Nations by Her Majesty's Government . . . on the Working of the International Treaties on Narcotic Drugs (London: Home Office, 1969), p. 13; ibid., 1972, p. 10.
Sources for pages    183
105-110
105-108
statistics: Home Office, "United Kingdom Statistics of Drug Addiction," 1973, sheets 1 and 2; Great Britain, Department of Health and Social Security, Annual Report (London: HMSO), 1969, pp. 283-284; 1970, p. 299.
105
pessimistic calculation: Hawks, "Evaluation of Measures to Deal with Drug Dependence," p. 115.
108
addicts' complaints: interviews with addicts, and with Don Aitken.
108
discovery of methadone: Ervin C. Kleiderer, Justus B. Rice, Victor Conquest, and James H. Williams, Pharmaceutical Activities at the I. G. Farbenindustrie Plant, Höchst am Main, report PB-981 (Washington: Department of Commerce, Office of the Publication Board, July 1945), pp. 85-86.
109
methadone blockade: Vincent P. Dole and Marie Nyswander, "A Medical Treatment for Diacetylmorphine (Heroin) Addiction," Journal of the American Medical Association 139 (1965) : 81-82, 83.
109-110
criticisms of methadone: interviews, Congressman Charles Rangel; Dr. James Wesley, director of drug programs, Harlem Hospital; Graham Finney, June and July 1972. Florence Heyman, "Methadone Maintenance as Law and Order," Society, June 1972, pp. 15-25. James Williams, "The Methadone Debate," Drugs and Society 2 (January 1973) :17-18; James M. Markham, "Methadone Therapy Programs: Issue and Debate," New York Times, 17 April 1973, p. 30; Henry J. Lennard, Leon J. Epstein, and Mitchell S. Rosenthal, "The Methadone Illusion," Science 176 (26 May 1972) :881-884, and the ensuing correspondence, idem, 179 (16 March 1973) , including authors' reply, pp. 1078-1079; R. J. Bozell, "Drug Abuse: Methadone Becomes the Solution and the Problem," Science 179:772-775.
184    Sources for pages
110-125
110-112
methadone in England: interviews with clinic directors generally, as previously cited, and particularly with Mitcheson, Mack, Bewley, Tripp, Oppenheim, August 1972.
112
442 on heroin alone: Home Office, "United Kingdom Statistics of Drug Addiction," 1973, sheet 2 (by computation from data there) .
112
amounts prescribed: data from Institute for the Study of Drug Dependence, London, August 1972 and April 1974, and elsewhere.
112
tribunals: under regulations issued by the Home Office pursuant to the Misuse of Drugs Act, 1971 (London: HMSO, 1971), Sec. 16, Sched. 3, Pt. I.
115
civil servant from New York: interview, Finney.
115-117
"costing the clinics": Ietter with costs from Department of Health and Social Security, 19 October 1972.
119
addicts getting older: Home Office, Report to the United Nations . . . on Narcotic Drugs, 1968-1972, comparing statistical table at para. 34.
124
Mitcheson: interview, March 1973, and conversations since.
125
billion dollars: United States, National Commission on Marihuana and Drug Abuse, Drug Use in America: Problem in Perspective, Second Report of the National Commission . . . (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, March 1973), p. 3.
125
"drug abuse industrial complex": loc. cit.
Sources for pages    185
126-128
126
Vera Institute: full citations at note to p. 11, above.
127
grandiose scheme: Vera Institute of Justice, staff memorandum, "The Use of Dangerous Drugs in the United States and England," 12 November 1966.
127
10,000 addicts: ibid., p. 9.
127
thinking of Home Office: Charles G. Jeffery, "Drug Control in the U.K.," in Modern Trends in Drug Dependence and Alcoholism, ed. R. V. Phillipson (London: Butterworth, 1970), p. 67. Despite publication date, Jeffery's text makes clear it was written before the British clinics were functioning.
127
credited British clinics: Charles Lidz, "The British Experience with Heroin and Other Opiates," Appendix C in Riordan and Gould, Vera Institute Proposal, p. C-6.
127
therapeutic communities: interviews, Freedman, Zinberg, October 1973. Markham, "What's All This Talk of Heroin Mainte nance," p. 7; John C. Kramer, "The Evaluation of Measures 'tll to Deal with Drug Dependence in the U.S.A.," Anglo-Ameri-
can Conference on Drug Abuse, Proceedings . . . 16-18 April,
1973, ed. R. A. Bowen (London: Royal Society of Medicine,
1973) , pp. 110, 111.
127-128
methadone numbers and problems: Koran, "Heroin Maintenance for Heroin Addicts," p. 655; also see citations at pp. 109-110, above.
128
quarantine: Steven Jonas, "Heroin Utilization: A Communicable Disease?" New York State Journal of Medicine 72 (1972) : 1292; idem, letter to editor, New England Journal of Medicine 288 (22 February 1973) :421-422; "Quarantining of
~
186    Sources for pages
128-131
Drug Addicts Urged to Halt Epidemics," New York Times, 8 May 1972, p. 74; ibid., 12 April 1972, p. 30.
128
considered with interest: "Proposal to Supply Free Heroin to Addicts Is Vigorously Condemned by Harlem Groups and Individuals," New York Times, 9 April 1972, p. 31.
128
Washington: American Bar Association, Special Committee on Crime Prevention and Control, New Perspectives in Urban Crime (Washington, D.C.: American Bar Association, 1972), p. 62.
128
impulsive legislator, Samuels: Markham, "What's All This Talk of Heroin Maintenance," p. 8.
129
the plan itself: Riordan and Gould, Vera Institute Proposal, pp. 3-4, 6-7.
129
"drug of choice": ibid., p. 5.
130
clinic procedures: ibid., pp. 14-16.
130
pilot-group assessment: ibid., pp. 17-18.
130
larger study: ibid., pp. 19 et seq.
131
Rangel: U.S. Congress, House, Congressional Record (Extensions of Remarks), 18 February 1972, p. E 1358.
131
Ingersoll: speech to California Peace Officers Association, 24 May 1972.
Sources for pages    187
132-134
132
Peyser's bills: H.R. 16458, Congressional Record, 17 August 1972,
p. H. 7870; H.R. 16617, Congressional Record, 12 September
1972, p. H. 8299; cited in Koran, "Heroin Maintenance for
Heroin Addicts," p. 656.
132
Dole: Vincent P. Dole, editorial, Journal of the American Medical Association 220 (12 June 1972) :1493.
132-133
Densen-Gerber: Markham, "What's All This Talk of Heroin Maintenance," p. 30.
133
Beierot: ibid., p. 30.
133
B.N.D.D. study: William H. McGlothlin, Victor A. Tabbush, Carl D. Chambers, and Kay Jamison, Alternative Approaches to Opiate Addiction Control: Costs, Benefits, and Potential (Washington: U.S. Department of Justice, Bureau of Narcotics and Dangerous Drugs, June 1972), pp. 1, 3-4.
133
civil commitment: ibid., p. 45 et seq.
134
courts slow: ibid., p. 46.
134
addict thefts: ibid., Appendix A, p. A4.
134
Rockefeller estimate: Drug Abuse Council, A Perspective on "Get Tough" Drug Laws (Washington: Drug Abuse Council, Inc., May 1973), p. 3.
134
F.B.I. estimate: United States, Department of Justice, Federal Bureau of Investigation, Uniform Crime Reports (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, annually), 1970, pp. 18-28; 1971, pp. 15-29; 1972, pp. 15-28.
188    Sources for pages
134-156
134-135
McGlothlin's total costs: McGlothlin et al., Alternative Approaches, Appendix A, pp. A2, A8.
135
McGlothlin on British "system": ibid., pp. 31, 33.
136
reduction in thefts: ibid., p. 36.
136
foregone production: ibid., pp. A18—A19.
136-137
large majority committed: ibid., p. 45.
138
doctors disgusted: interview, Newman, June 1972.
139
greatest fear: Lewis, "A Heroin Maintenance Program in the U.S.?" p. 546.
140
U.S. National Commission: U.S. National Commission on Marihuana
and Drug Abuse, Drug Use in America, pp. 334, 373.
140
advocates: for review of these arguments, Koran, "Heroin Maintenance for Heroin Addicts," pp. 654-656, 660; Brecher and editors of Consumer Reports, Licit and Illicit Drugs, pp. 134, 530.
143
no more bad trips: the climbing but changed pattern of use of LSD is widely reported; it was confirmed in interviews, for example, with Freedman and Blum, September and October 1973.
145-146
Edwards: interview, December 1973.
155-156
statistics: see pages 158-160.