Notes

1. The legislation of morality
I. Philip Selznic.k, "Sociology of Law" (mimeographed, Center for the Study of Law and Society, University of California, Berkeley) April, 1965. Prepared for the International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences.
2. /bid.
3. Ibid., p. 23.
4. Charles E. Terry and Mildred Pellens, The Opium Problem (New York: Bureau of Social Hygiene, 1928), p. 66.
5. /bid., p. 69.
6. Ibid., p. 75.
7. Marie Nyswander, The Drug Addict as a Patient (New York: Grune & Stratton, 1956), 1-13.
8. B. H. Hartwell, "The Sale and Use of Opium in Massachusetts," Annual Report Massachusetts State Board of Health, 1889.
9. Terry and Pellens, op. cit., p. 17.
10. C. W. Earle, "The Opium Habit," Chicago Medical Review, 2 (1880), 442-90.
11. A. P. Grinnell, "A Review of Drug Consumption and Alcohol as Found in Proprietary Medicine," Medical Legal Journal, 1905, pp. 426-589.
12. A much longer list of references is cited by Terry and Pellens, op. cit., and the following are only a small but representative portion: H. Dreser, the man credited with the discovery of heroin, writing of his own findings in an Abstract to the Journal of the American Medical Association, 1898; two reports by M. Manges in the New York Medical Journal, November 26, .j898 and January 20, woo.
13. G. E. Pettey, "The Heroin Habit, Another Curse," Alabama Medical
Journal, is (1902-1903), 174-180.
14. Terry and Pellens, op. cit.
15 E.G Eberle report of committee on acquirement of drug habits, ajp october 1903 p 481
16. Terry and Pellens, op. cit., P. 468.
17. C. S. Pearson, "A Study of Degeneracy as Seen Among Addicts," New York Medical Journal, November 15, 1919, pp. 8o808.
18. For example, cf. T. S. Blair, "Narcotic Drug Addiction as Regulated by a State Department of Health," Journal of the American Medical Association, 72 (May 17, 1919), r442-44.
19. G. D. Swaine, "Regarding the Luminal Treatment of Morphine Addiction," American Journal of Clinical Medicine, 25 (August, 1918), 611.
20. Terry and Pellens, op. cit., p. 499.
21. Ibid., p. 47S.
22. S. D. Hubbard, "The New York City Narcotic Clinic and Differing Points of View on Narcotic Addiction," Monthly Bulletin of the Department of Health, City of New York, February, 1920.
23. Terry and Pellens, op. cit., p. is.
24. Earle, op. cit.
25. Terry and Pellens, op. cit., pp. 470-471.
26. J. McIver and G. E. Price, "Drug Addiction," Journal of the American Medical Association, 66 (February 12, 1916), 477.
27. Hubbard, op. cit.
28. Nyswander, op. cit.
29. Alfred R. Lindesmith, The Addict and the Law (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 5965), p. 6.
30. Annual Report of the Commissioner of Internal Revenue for the Fiscal Year ended June 30, 1920, Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, pp. 33-34-
31. Lindesmith, op. cit., pp. 539-61.
32. Ibid.
33. Ibid., p. 143-
34. "What to Know About Drug Addiction," Washington, D.C.: Public Health Service Publication No. 94, 1951.
35. Lindesmith, op. cit., p. 37.
36. Ibid.
37. Raymond W. Mack, "Do We Really Believe in the Bill of Rights," Social Problems, 3 (April, 1956), 264-69.
38. Edwin Schur, Crimes Without Victims (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1965).
39. Lindesmith, op. cit., 1965.
40. "Public" is here used to mean both (a) an area where strangers congregate and (b) a situation where strangers may be involved in an exchange.

2. The effects and uses of narcotics and moral judgment
1. Louis S. Goodman and Alfred Gilman, The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics (2d Ed.; New York: The Macmillan Co., 1960), p.
222.
2. A. Wikler, M. J., Pescor, E. P. Kalbaugh, and R. J. Angelucci, "Effects of Prefrontal Lobotomy on the Morphine-Abstinence Syndrome in Man; an Experimental Study," A.M.A. Arch. Neural. and Psychiat.
67 (1952), 510-21.
3. Goodman and Gilman, op. cit., pp. 216-274.
4. See Chapters 6 and 7 of this book for reports of research on apprehended morphine and heroin addicts.
5. See Chapters 6 and 7.
6. William B. Eldridge, Narcotics and the Law (New York: University Press, for the American Bar Foundation, 1962), pp. 6-7.
7. Charles Winick, "Narcotics Addiction and Its Treatment," Law and Contemporary Problems, 22 (Winter, 1957), 9-33.
8. See especially the excellent discussion of this in Marie Nyswander, The Drug Addict as Patient (New York and London: Grune and Stratton, 1956).
9. The data upon which this section is based were gathered upon the population of drug addicts incarcerated at the California Rehabilitation Center in 1964; the methodology and the study itself are reported in Chapters 6 and 7.
10. Goodman and Gilman, op. cit., p. io.
11. Ibid.
12. Aaron Cicourel, The Social Organization of Juvenile Justice (New York: John Wiley, 1968).
13. Joseph Gusfield, "Social Structure and Moral Reform: A Study of the WCTU," American Journal of Sociology, 61 (November, 1955),
pp. 221-232.
14. Eldridge, op. cit. , pp. 1-34.
15. Howard S. Becker, Outsiders: Studies in the Sociology of Deviance (New York: The Free Press,6
19-3), pp. 41-78.
16. Goodman and Gilman, op. cit., pp. 171-72.
17. S. Allentuck, "Medical Aspects" in The Marijuana Problem in the City of New York, Mayor's Committee on Marijuana, New York (Lancaster, Pa.: The Jacques Cattell Press., 1944).
18. Becker, op. cit.
19. Alfred R. Lindesmith, The Addict and the Law, Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 196$), pp. 228-31.
20. /bid., pp. 222-42.
21. Goodman and Gilman, op. cit., p. 174.
22. Lindesmith, O. cit.
23. Actually, total abstainers would also have to be the subjects of an intensive study in order to make reliable statements about a probable relationship.
24. Isador Chein and others, The Road to H (New York: Basic Books, 1964).
25. San Francisco Chronicle, March 31, 1966, p. 1.
26. A. Wikler, "Sites and Mechanisms of Action of Morphine and Related Drugs in the Central Nervous System," Pharmacological Review, 2 (1950), 435-506.
27. Aldous Huxley, The Doors of Perception (New York: Harper and Row, 1954).
28. Egon Brunswick, Perception and the Representative Design of Psychological Experiments (2d Ed., Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 1956).
29. Ibid.
30. Sidney Cohen, The Beyond Within (New York: Atheneum, 1965).
31. Lindesmith, op. cit. pp. vii-xiii and pp. 222-42.
32. Richard Harris, The Real Voice (New York: The Macmillan Co., 1964),
pp. 99-112.
33. Lindesmith, op. cit., pp. 222-42.
34. Alfred Schutz, Collected Papers I, The Problem of Social Reality (The Hague, Netherlands: Martinus Nijhoff, 1962).

3. Who is a drug addict?
1. Robert S. DeRopp, "Torture by the Drug," in Dan Wakefield, ed., The Addict (Greenwich, Conn.: Fawcett, 1963), pp. 43-46.
2. /bid., pp. 43-44.
3. Ibid., pp. 44-45.
4. Alfred R. Lindesmith, Opiate Addiction (Bloomington: Printipia, 1947).
5. Suppose, for example, such an individual decided to take symptomatic treatments, or some synthetic substitutes in smaller and smaller quantities until he achieved equilibrium again; or suppose he decided to abstain with no symptomatic treatment? In either of these instances, was the individual not addicted?
6. Charles E. Terry and Mildred Pellens, The Opium Problem (New York: Bureau of Social Hygiene, 1928), Chapters 1-3.
7. James Weeks, "Experimental Narcotic Addiction," Scientific American, 210: 3 (March, 1964), pp. 46-52.
8. /bid., p. 46.
9. Ibid., pp. 46-52.
10. /bid., p. 47-
11. Ibid.
12. Ibid.
13. Ibid., p. 52.
14. Aaron Cicourel, The Social Organization of Juvenile Justice (New York: John Wiley, 1968) Chapter 5.
15. See Chapters 7 and 8.
16. Terry and Pellens, op. cit.
17. A fuller discussion appears in the next two chapters.
18. A fuller discussion of "total" and "partial" identities appears in the fourth chapter. The discussion of total identity in particular is indebted to Harold Garfinkel's "Conditions of Successful Degradation Ceremonies," American Journal of Sociology, 61 (1956), 420-24.
19. Herbert Bloch and Gilbert Geis Man, Crime, and Society (New York: Random House, 1962), pp. 161-86.

4. Analytic and empirical approaches to the study of morality
1. Talcott Parsons, E. A. Shils, et al. Towards a General Theory of Action (New York: Harper and Row, 1962).
2. The term "own" here is a bit evasive, and is tapped at one level in common-sense terms. However, to be more precise, it should be said that by "own beliefs" it is meant here those sets of belief that the individual subscribes to which are invariant to his movement back and forth from different social groups and systems and which are often contrary to the social system of immediate context. It seems that the surest empirical way for the sociologists to deal with "own" in this sense is by treating the negative case. There are some problems here that can shift over into the ontological realm with the slightest push, but this distinction can suffice for the present usage.
3. See Note 2, above, for explanation of this usage.
4. Statement by David McReynolds, issued by War Resisters League, 5 Beekman Street, New York, New York, November 6,1965.
5. Emile Durkheim, The Division of Labor in Society, Trans. G. Simpson (New York: The Free Press, 1947).
6. Alexis de Tocqueville, The Old Regime and the French Revolution (Garden City, New York: Doubleday-Anchor, 1955).
7. P. McHugh and G. Platt, "On the Failure of Epistemological Truth," paper read at the 6tst Annual Meeting of the American Sociological Association, Miami Beach, Florida, August 31,1966.
8. R. Bendix, Work and Authority in Industry (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1956), Part I.
9. E. C. Hughes, "Dilemmas and Contradictions of Status," American Journal of Sociology, 50 (March, 1945), 353-59.
10. Howard S. Becker, Outsiders: Studies in the Sociology of Deviance (New York, The Free Press 1964), P. 33-
11. Ibid. pp. 32-34.
12. cf. Max Weber, The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism, trans. Talcott Parsons (London: Allen and Unwin, 1930); and Svend Ranulf, Moral Indignation and Middle Class Psychology (Copenhagen: Levin and Munksgaard, Ejnar Munksgaard, 1938), pp. 1-95.
13. Weber, op. cit. and Ranulf, op. cit.
14. Becker, op. cit., p. 34.
15. Harold Garfinkel, "Some Sociological Concepts and Methods for Psychiatrists," Psychiatric Research Reports, 6(1956), 181-95.
16. R. H. Blum and M. L. Funkhouser, "Legislators on Social Scientists and a Social Issue: A Report and Commenatry on Some Discussions with Lawmakers about Drug Abuse," The Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, i (1965), pp. 84-112.
17. Ibid., pp. 99-100.
18. Richard A. Smith, "The Incredible Electrical Conspiracy," in M. E. Wolfgang, L. Savitz, and N. Johnston, eds., The Sociology of Crime and Delinquency (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1962), pp. 357-72.
19. Anselm Strauss, ed., George Herbert Mead on Social Psychology, Selected Papers (Rev. ed., Chicago and London, 1964).

5. Deviance and the reaction of society
1. C. Wright Mills, The Sociological Imagination (New York: Oxford University Press, 195). Also see Alvin W. Gouldner, "Anti-Minotaur: The Myth of a Value Free Sociology," in I. L. Horowitz, ed., The New Sociology (New York: Oxford University Press, 1964), pp. 196-217.
2. The early section borrows directly from an earlier paper on this problem, Cf. Troy Duster, "Patterns of Deviant Reaction: Some Theoretical Issues," Social Psychiatry, 3, r (Jan., 1968), 1-7.
3. See Alfred Schutz, Collected Papers I, The Problem of Social Reality (The Hague, Netherlands: Martinus Nijhoff, 1962); Harold Garfinkel, "Some Conceptions of and Experiments with 'Trust' as a Condition of Stable Concerted Action," in 0. J. Harvey, ed., Motivation and Social Interaction (New York: The Ronald Press, 1963), pp. 187-238. See also his "Studies of the Routine Grounds of Everyday Activities," Social Problems, II (Winter, 1964), 225-5o. Another exception is Howard S. Becker's Outsiders: Studies in the Sociology of Deviance (New York: The Free Press, 1964), pp. 189-224.
4. Sociology asks the same question in reverse requesting an explanation of deviance in the terms of psychological detarminism: Why are the lower classes and ethnic groups so disproportionately represented in deviance and crime? Is it that 'those kinds of psychological problems' don't exist among other groups—or that something quite social is operating as a powerful force to screen them?
5. R. A. Cloward and L. E. Ohlin, Delinquency and Opportunity: A Theory of Delinquent Gangs (New York:1 'le Free Press, 1960).
6. R. K. Merton, Social Theory and Social Structure (Rev. ed., New York: The Free Press, 1957), pp. 121-94.
7. A. K. Cohen, Delinquent Boys, the Culture of the Gang (New York: The Free Press, 1955).
8. Cloward and Ohlin, op. cit.
9. E. H. Sutherland and D. R. Cressey, Principles of Criminology (6th Ed.; Chicago: J. B. Lippincott, 1960).
10. E. Lemert, Social Pathology (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1951).
11. Garfinkel, op. cit., 1963 and 5964.
12. Becker, op. cit.
13. J. I. Kitsuse, "Societal Reaction to Deviance: Problems of Theory and Method," Social Problems, 9 (Winter, 1962), 247-56.
14. Emile Durkeim, Suicide (New York: The Free Press, 1951).
15. No reference is here intended to Lindesmith's quite empirically observable proposition about prior knowledge and addiction, discussed in Chapter 3.
16. The data from the California Rehabilitation Centre reveal a case of an apprehended addict who claimed only to be in attendance at his first marijuana party. See Chapters 6 and 7.
17. This is not simply to say that if society ignores a certain kind of deviance, there will be no more of that deviance. That is simply tautological truth, which says nothing of consequence about the nature and process of the relationship between the normals and the deviants. I am concerned here with the positive activities in which a society engages that exacerbate deviance and block a return to normality. Cf. Kai T. Erikson, "Notes on the Sociology of Deviance," in Howard S. Becker, ed., The Other Side: Perspectives on Deviance (New York: The Free Press, 1964), pp. 9-20.
18. See the discussion of this subject in Chapters i and 2.
19. Synanon is discussed in Chapters 7 and 8.
20. H. Garfinkel, "Conditions of Successful Degradation Ceremonies," America! Journal of Sociology, 61 (1956), 420-24.
21. Students enrolled in the first semester, "Introduction to Sociology," University of California, Riverside, Fall, 1964.
22. See Chapter 9.
23. This discussion also elaborated in Chapter 9.
24. Kitsuse, op. cit.
25. /bid.
26. Ibid.

6. The California Rehabilitation Center
1. R. Volkman and D. R. Cressey, "Differential Association and the Rehabilitation of Drug Addicts," American Journal of Sociology, 69 (September, 1963), 129-42.
2. G. Sykes, The Society of Captives: A Study of a Maximum Security Prison (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1958). Also see D. Clemmer, The Prison Community (New York: Rinehart, 1958).
3. Ibid.
4. Erving Goffman, Asylums: Essays on the Social Situation of Mental Patients and Other Inmates (New York: Doubleday, 1961).
5. /bid., pp. 3-124.
6. /bid., p. 4.
7. Harold Garfinkel, "Conditions of Successful Degradation Ceremonies," American Journal of Sociology, 61 (1956), 420-24.
8. August B. Hollingshead and Frederick C. Redlich, Social Class and Mental Illness (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1958), pp. 66-168.
9. Ibid.
10. Ibid., pp. 594-250.
11. For the details on sample selection and method, see Chapter 7.
12. See Chapter 7.
13. Richard Harris, The Real Voice (New York: The Macmillan Company, 5964), pp. 99-112.

7. The moral implications of psychic maladjustment in the deviant
1. 0. Temkin, The Falling Sickness (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins Press, 1945).
2. This is not to say that such an assessment of the addict's psychic disorder is necessarily accurate. That can be determined only empirically by looking at specific individual addicts, and not by lumping a diverse category together and asserting psychic imbalance by the definition of narcotic use.
3. J. K. Galbraith, The Affluent Society (Harmondsworth, Middlesex, England: Penguin Books, Ltd., 5962). The second chapter of Galbraith's book deals with the concept of the "conventional wisdom." My usage of the term here can be read both for its common-sense terms and in the more precise way Galbraith uses it.
4. T. W. Adorno, et al., The Authoritarian Personality (New York: Harper and Row, 1950).
5. D. Ausubel, Drug Addiction, Physiological Psychological, and Sociological Aspects (New York: Random House, 1958, pp. 45-42).
6. Ibid., p.
7. Natalie Rogoff, "Recent Trends in Urban Occupational Mobility," in R. Bendix and S. M. Lipset, eds., Class, Status, and Power (New York: The Free Press, 1953), pp. 442-54.
8. See Chapter T.
9. Ausubel, op. cit., p. 34.
10. A. R. Lindesmith, The Addict and the Law (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1965), pp.    1-22. Lindesmith skillfully takes
official figures from official sources and shows how the conflict between them indicates dramatic underestimation of the number of unapprehended addicts.
11. K. H. Houck, "A Brief Outline of the CRC. Program," pamphlet issued by the Chief Psychiatrist of the California Rehabilitation Center, July 17, 1963, Corona, California.
12. "A Legislator looks at the California Rehabilitation Center," Correctional Review, Department of Corrections, State of California, Sacramento, California, 1965.
13. Ibid.
14. Eight individuals selected into the sample for the purpose of being respondents for the interview received their parole notices and departed before they could be contacted. In these cases, others were chosen by the same method.
15. Aaron V. Cicourel, Method and Measurement in Sociology (New York: The Free Press, 1964).
16. I. Chein, et al., The Road to H (New York: Basic Books, 1964).
17. Findings from the smaller interview sample.
18. W. Miller, "Lower Class Culture as a Generating Milieu of Gang Delinquency," The Journal of Social Issues, 14 (1958), pp. 5-19.
19. See Chapter 3.
20. The discussion in Chapter 2 points to the difficulty in this position.
21. M. V. Miller and S. Gilmore, eds., Revolution at Berkeley (New York: Dell Publishing Co., 1965), pp. xxiv-xxix.
22. /bid., sections II, III, and IV.
23. See Chapter I.
24. Andrew Billingsley and Amy T. Billingsley, "Illegitimacy and Patterns of Negro Family Life," in Robert W. Roberts, ed., The Unwed Mother (New York: Harper and Row, 1966), pp. 133-57. Also see E. Franklin Frazier, The Negro Family in the United States (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1939).

8. Perspectives on the addicts' world view
1. See Chapter 3.
2. It is only "occasionally" that the addict regards himself as superior to the alcoholic. The former is continually reminded of the legal and illegal aspects of their respective behavior.
3. The CRC addicts strongly believed that they were not so dramatically affected by the drug that they could not perform these tasks quite well.
4. The working ideology of the rehabilitation center is referred to here, namely, that the way out is through revealed self-knowledge that the fault lies within the individual.
5. In Chapter I, see pp. 21-22.
6. See Chapter 2.
7. Less than zo per cent of the inmates of CRC retained a private attorney during the legal proceedings that led to their commitment.
8. David Sudnow, "Normal Crimes: Sociological Features of the Penal Code in a Public Defender Office," Social Problems, 12: 3 (196$), 255-76.
9. Raymond Mack's lectures in Race Relations, Northwestern University, 1955.
10. Walter B. Miller, "Lower Class Culture as a Generating Milieu of Gang Delinquency," Journal of Social Issues, 14: 3 (1958), 5-19.
11. David Matza, Delinquency and Drift (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1964).
12. Thomas Szasz, The Myth of Mental Illness (New York: Harper & Row, 1961).
13. Unpublished manuscript by Aaron V. Cicourel on Argentina family.
14. Ibid.
15. Isador Chein, et al., The Road to H (New York: Basic Books, 1964).
16. Marie Nyswander, The Drug Addict as a Patient (New York: Grune & Stratton, 1956).
17. See Chapters 3 and 7.
18. Howard S. Becker, Outsiders: Studies in the Sociology of Deviance (New York: The Free Press, 1964).
19. Harold Finestone, "Cats, Kicks, and Color," in Howard S. Becker, ed., The Other Side: Perspectives on Deviance (New York: The Free Press, 1964), pp. 281-97.
20. Miller, op. cit.
21. Finestone., op. cit., and Miller, op. cit.
22. Marsh B. Ray, "The Cycle of Abstinence and Relapse Among Heroin Addicts," Social Problems, 9 (Fall, 1961), pp. 132-40.
23. One can anticipate the objection that the analog is inappropriate because the slaves were slaves against their will, while addicts voluntarily become addicted. However, this analogy concerns the condition of the slave and the addict, and the escape from that condition, not the circumstances leading to the condition. (In any case, the reasoning that the addict is mentally different because he began using narcotics is tautological.)

Mental illness and criminal intent
1. The M'Naghten Rule of 1843 established the basis for the plea of insanity as a legitimate defense for the accused. CC Daniel M'Naghten's Case, in N. Johnston, L. Savitz, and M. Wolfgang Eds., The Sociology of Punishment and Correction (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1962), pp. 42-46.
2. J. Hall, General Principles of Criminal Law (2nd Ed.; Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1960).
3. H. Garfinkel, "Conditions of Successful Degradation Ceremonies," Amer.]. of Socio/. 61 (1956), 420-24.
4. C. E. Terry, and M. Pellens, The Opium Problem (New York: Bureau of Social Hygiene, 1928).
5. A. K. Cohen, Delinquent Boys, the Culture of the Gang (New York: The Free Press, 1955). Also, CC R. Cloward, and L. Ohlin, Delinquency and Opportunity: A Theory of Delinquent Gangs (New York: The Free Press, 1960).
6. G. Tyler, Ed., Organized Crime in America (Ann Arbor: Univ. of Michigan Press, 1962), pp. 227-336.
7. /bid., pp. 138-39.
8. Ibid.
9. E. H. Sutherland, Ed., The Professional Thief (Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press, 1937).
10. D. Sudnow, "Normal Crimes: Sociological Features of the Penal Code in a Public Defender Office," Social Problems, 52:3 1965, 255-76.
11. /bid.
12. R. K. Merton, Social Theory and Social Structure (Rev. Ed.; New York: The Free Press, 1957), pp. 131-60.
13. A. Schutz, Collected Papers I, the Problem of Social Reality (The Hague, Netherlands: Martinus Nijhoff, 1962).

10. Law and morality: some summary considerations
1. Svend Ranulf, Moral Indignation and Middle Class Psychology (Copenhagen: Levin and Munksgaard, Ejnar Munksgaard, 1938), pp. 1-95; and Joseph Gusfield, Symbolic Crusade (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1963).
2. Howard S. Becker, Outsiders: Studies in the Sociology of Deviance (New York: The Free Press, 1964), pp. 547-63-
3. American Bar Association and American Medical Association Joint Committee on Narcotic Drugs, Drug Addiction: Crime or Disease? (Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Press, 1961).
4. Alfred R. Lindesmith, The Addict and the Law, Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1965.
5. Gusfield, op. cit., p. 529.