Drug Abuse

CHAPTER III

A FEW NOTES ON STIMULI

R's `Activation' by Stimuli

Outline o R's `Activation' by Stimuli

Internal actors

External Factors

Conclusions

§ 91 A stimulus is any form of energy (biochemical, chemical, mechanical, electro magnetic and so on) which is produced in R's internal or external environment and acts upon him.

Internal environment7 is the sum total of cells and liquids which constitute a living system (and therefore R's body). Internal stimuli for R are the stimuli which are produced in his internal environment.

R's external environment is whatever surrounds his internal environment. External stimuli for R are the stimuli which are produced in his external environment and act upon him.

§ 92 During intra-uterine life, the foetus' external environment is the womb. During expulsion-birth the external environment for the foetus/new-born is his natural mother's genital canal. Immediately after birth it is the infinite chaos of the universe.

Note: The various conditions of the external environment consist of the sum of stimuli of sundry quality and intensity. These combined stimuli have a certain symbolism for the internal environment and constitute messages for it.8 For example, the conditions of expulsion-birth are composed of the sum of mechanical, acoustic, optic and other stimuli which excite the foetus/new-born's nervous system. The foetus/new-born's existential identity feels these combined stimuli as messages from the external environment.

§ 93 The external stimuli which excite the neurons usually leave their 'memory traces' in neuronal elements. These'memory traces' may be reactivated either through a recurrence of the stimuli which produced them or by various other internal or exter nal stimuli. When this happens, the experience produced by the original stimuli is re vived because the whole process of the original neuronal excitation is repeated.

Example: The 'memory traces' left within the neurons by the conditionsstimuli of expulsion-birth may be reactivated (by psychedelic drugs, for instance) and result in the revival of expulsion-birth.

§ 94 There are numerous kinds of internal stimuli. Some of these are:

(a) The biological needs - direct and indirect - which 'activate' R in his everyday life. The direct biological need is an internal force which motivates R to preserve the homogeneity, cohesion and integrity of his individual material being for as long as possible. The indirect biological needs are those needs which spring from the direct biological need. These are R's self-perpetuation through sexual activity, food intake and so on.

(b) Metabolites, that is, various chemical substances which are produced during cell metabolism.

(c) Emotions, thoughts and so forth.

(d) Various biochemicophysical substances-factors, such as neurotransmitters and neuro-hormones, which are produced in the internal environment.

Note: The 'memory traces' of stimuli which are preserved within the neurons are potential internal stimuli.

An internal stimulus may excite directly any central or peripheral neuron. For example, in figure 2 (p.175) an internal stimulus may excite neuron n-2a, which is central, without having previously excited the presynaptic neuron n-1 (see note § 101). Conclusion: An internal environment may be 'activated' at a given moment solely by internal stimuli. Hallucinations, for example, result from the excitation of neurons by internal stimuli.

R'S ACTIVATION BY STIMULI

§ 95 When a stimulus excites R's nervous system, it disturbs the equilibrium of his internal environment. As a result, the internal environment is'activated' to restore its equilibrium through a series of excitations which are transmitted from receptorssensory neurons to motor neurons and finally to effectors.9 The movements of effectors, which occur when the latter are excited, are always related to the stimulus in some way.

'Activation', then, is the process which takes place within the internal environment from the moment its equilibrium is disturbed by a stimulus until equilibrium is 'restored' through the excitation of effectors. The process of 'activation' is characterized, among other things, by (a) the endeavour to recognize the biological significance of stimuli which excite the nervous system and (b) symptoms and phenomena.

§ 96 Biological significance of stimuli Every stimulus which acts upon R has, unconsciously and sometimes also consciously, a certain biological significance for his existential identity/self-preservation.

Of the various stimuli which act upon R, some favour his existential identity/self-preservation while others oppose it. Unconsciously, and sometimes also consciously, R considers the former accepting stimuli and the latter rejecting stimuli.

A rejecting stimulus, then, is any stimulus which is dangerous for R's existential identity/self-preservation and which prevents him from satisfying his biological needs. Every rejecting stimulus causes unconscious and sometimes also conscious fear, whether it be specific fear, anxiety or primitive terror.

An accepting stimulus is any stimulus which is beneficial for R's existential identity/self-preservation and which satisfies his biological needs. The accepting stimulus gives rise to a feeling of security-reconciliation (see § 47).

If a stimulus is neither rejecting nor accepting, then it lacks biological significance. Consequently, the excitation it produces is usually restricted to the peripheral sensory neurons.

Note: The intensity of a rejecting or accepting stimulus depends on internal and external factors (§ 104 - 108).

§ 97 A nervous system's 'activation' by stimuli results, among other things, in:

(a) Various symptoms A symptom is a subjective state experienced by a specific nervous system. It accompanies the excitation of sensory neurons of that nervous system. The quality of symptoms depends on the quality of the sensory neurons which are excited, for example:

(i) Sensorial symptoms - optic, acoustic, olfactory, gustatory, tactile, kinaesthetic, thermal and so on - accompany the excitation of the various sensorial neurons.

(ii) Emotional symptoms - such as fear and anger - accompany the excitation of the various neurons of the limbic system.

(iii) Intellectual symptoms - such as streams of thought - accompany the excitaiton of neurons of the cerebral cortex and in particular the cortex of the frontal poles.

(iv) They symptoms of consciousness of existential identity accompanies the excitation of the existential neurons (see § 89).

Symptoms are either unconscious, conscious or both; for example, fear is unconscious but sometimes it also reaches consciousness.

(b)    Various phenomena Phenomena are the movements which effectors make.   In other words, they are the contraction and dilatations of striated and non-striated muscular fibres which occur when the latter receive excitations from motor neurons (see § 99).

§ 98 Motor neurons These terminate at the effectors. Two types of motor neurons are distinguished:

(a) Neurovegetative motor neurons; these excite the non-striated muscles of internal organs and glands (intestines, larynx, salivary glands etc.) causing the internal organs to contract and dilate and the glands to secrete their products.

(b) Motor neurons which excite the striated muscles. These are called pyramidal neurons and motor neurons of the anterior horns of the spinal cord. The movements (contractions-dilatations) of the striated muscles result in R's movements within the space of his external environment - blinking, walking and so on.

Note: The cardiac muscle consists of a special quality of striated muscular fibres.

When R's effectors are excited the result is called a phenomenon because it may be perceived by an observer. A phenomenon may excite kinaesthetic neurons and produce the symptom of kinaesthesia.

§ 99 Behaviour R's behaviour consists of such phenomena as gestures, facial ex pressions, manners of speech, of walking and of dressing, digesting, blushing and so on.

The word 'behaviour' is used in this book in a very broad sense to cover the movements of any effector or effectors since all effectors consist of muscular fibres which contract and dilate.

Note: Although effectors react in a stereotyped manner when excited, various qualities of sensory neurons use the same effectors to serve their purpose. Examples: Limbic and other neurons excite the same neurovegetative motor neurons and effectors to shed tears of sadness and tears of happiness. Limbic and other neurons use the same effectors of the lower limbs to approach an anger-producing stimulus and to withdraw from a fear-producing stimulus.

Conclusion: Effectors are literally organs which effect or carry out the directions of the sensory neurons. Thus, it is the emotional-intellectual motives of behaviour and not behaviour itself which is of supreme importance.

§ 100 In contrast to the foetal sensory neurons, the foetal motor neurons hypofunction. Thus, when foetal limbic neurons are excited by rejecting womb stimuli and this excitation is transmitted to motor neurons, the latter react very little or not at all. Consequently, the excitation is 'stored' within the neurons. The Sessions show that this 'stored excitation' constitutes a permanent source of potential internal stimuli which, when reactivated, result in extremely strong 'activation' (see R10 p.41).

OUTLINE OF R'S 'ACTIVATION' BY STIMULI

§ 101 Internal or external stimulus -> Excitation of various sensory neurons = disturbance of internal environment's equilibrium -> Co-ordination of sensory neurons which have been excited -> Transmission of excitation to specific motor neurons and effectors -> 'Most appropriate' movement of effectors = 'most appropriate' behaviour in order to equilibrate original internal or external stimulus and to restore internal environment's equilibrium.

In accordance with the above outline, the specific sensory neurons which are excited at a given moment co-ordinate and function as R's 'organ of direction' for that same moment only.

Note: Internal stimuli may excite (a) effectors, without having previously excited motor neurons or (b) motor neurons, without having previously excited sensory neurons (the excitation of the motor neurons is subsequently transmitted to effectors) or (c) sensory neurons or receptors (the excitation is subsequently transmitted to motor neurons and then to effectors).

§ 102 When an indirect biological need (internal stimulus) disturbs the equilibrium of R's internal environment, the stimulus is equilibrated through the 'most appropriate' behaviour, that is, (a) discovering the 'most appropriate' point in the environment where the biological need can be satisfied, (b) turning the forehead facing the 'most appropriate' point, (c) keeping the forehead facing the 'most appropriate' point, (d) moving towards the 'most appropriate' point, (e) satisfying the need at the 'most appropriate' point.

To satisfy an indirect need by completing the process of the'most appropriate' behaviour requires a certain amount of time. During this time stimuli which are dangerous for R's existential identity/self-preservation may occur. In such a case, the motive for behaviour - the indirect need or internal stimulus - is instantly replaced by existential identity/self-preservation's direct need (different internal stimulus). The attempt to satisfy the indirect need is interrupted and R's internal environment is motivated to satisfy the direct biological need.

Example: R is in the jungle. While approaching a spring to quench his thirst, he perceives a lion lurking nearby. R instantly flees.

§ 103 R's 'activation' by rejecting stimuli - outlines

(a) Rejecting stimulus --> Very strong excitation of sensorial neurons at level of spinal cord or cerebral stem --> Direct (monosyaptic) transmission of excitation to specific motor neurons and effectors -->'Most appropriate' behaviour.

Example: R is smoking. Suddenly, through carelessness, the lighted cigarette brushes against one of his fingers. Instantly certain striated muscles contract and the finger withdraws from the cigarette, the latter being a rejecting stimulus for R's finger and by extension for his existential identity/self-preservation.

Note: In this example the sensorial neurons of the V, VI, VII and VIII cervical myelotomes functioned as the'organ of direction'.

(b) Rejecting stimulus --> Simultaneous excitation of many different qualities of sensory neurons -> Excitation of one kind of limbic neurons predominates - > Transmission of excitation to specific motor neurons and effectors -->'Most appropriate' behaviour. Example (i) R is quarrelling with X. The latter says to R: 'You're an idiot!' R immediately punches X.

Note: 'You're an idiot' was a rejecting stimulus for R's existential identity/selfpreservation which excited specific neurons of the limbic system and caused anger. These limbic neurons functioned as R's 'organ of direction' and 'activated' his effectors to aggressive behaviour.

Example (ii) Immediately following R's attack, X counter-attacks with stronger blows, putting R to flight.

Note: The stronger blows acted as mechanical stimuli which threatened to reject R's existential identity/self-preservation. These rejecting stimuli strongly excited specific limbic neurons and caused fear. The limbic neurons functioned as R's 'organ of direction', 'activating' his effectors to flight.

Example (iii) R is swimming in the sea. Suddenly a huge shark attacks him. R panics or freezes.

Note: The shark, a rejecting stimulus for R's existential identity/self-preservation, violently excited specific limbic neurons and reactivated primitive terror. These limbic neurons functioned as R's 'organ of direction', 'activating' his effectors to panicky behaviour or paralysis.

(c) Rejecting stimulus --> Simultaneous excitation of many different qualities of sensory neurons -> Excitation of cortical neurons of frontal poles predominates -a Transmission of excitation to specific motor neurons and effectors -> 'Most appropriate' behaviour.

Example: A young Roman, brought before Hannibal, thrust his hand into fire and removed it only when it had been completely burnt. The young man's aim was to convince Hannibal of the Romans' bravery and the futility of his attacking besieged Rome.

Note: Hannibal constituted a rejecting stimulus for the young Roman's existential identity/self-preservation which intensely excited his cortical neurons. These neurons functioned as the Roman's 'organ of direction', 'activating' his effectors to the 'most appropriate' behaviour.

(d) Rejecting stimulus -+ Simultaneous excitation of many different qualities of sensory neurons -> No predominant excitation of any kind of sensory neurons -+ Transmission of contradictory excitations to motor neurons and effectors --+ Indecisive behaviour.

Example: Any dilemma leads to indecisive behaviour.

§ 104 What has been said in this chapter so far raises the following two questions: Question 1: If a stimulus's' of specific quality and intensity excites R's nervous system at two different moments after expulsion-birth, will the results in both cases be identical both in quality and intensity?

Question 2: If an external stimulus 's' of specific quality and intensity excites the nervous system of each R simultaneously, will the results be identical both in quality and intensity?

Answer to Question 1:   If the conditions of R's internal environment are absolutely identical at both given moments, then the stimulus 's' will produce identical results in both cases.   (Theoretically, identical conditions of this kind do not exist since by the second moment the living system is older.)

Answer to Question 2: This may be given only after we have studied the internal and external factors regulating the quality and intensity of 'activation' of each R's nervous system.

INTERNAL FACTORS

§ 105 Internal factors are individual factors which characterize a specific internal environment, predisposing it to react to stimuli in a manner which is absolutely peculiar to it. The most basic internal factors are individual heredity and individual constitution.

(a) Individual heredity Through heredity are transmitted to the cells of a specific R's body:

(i) The 'memory traces' of the general manner in which living cells are 'activated' by stimuli.

(ii) The 'memory traces' of the particular way in which the cells of the human species are'activated' by stimuli.

(iii) The'memory traces' of the individual way one or more of R's ancestors was 'activated' by stimuli.

(b) Individual constitution Among the factors which comprise a specific R's individual constitution is the unique manner in which all his cells (and in particular, those of his nervous system) are 'activated' by stimuli. Individual constitution is moulded, among other things, by:

(i) The 'memory traces' of stimuli inherited by R's nerve cells (neurons) from homogeneous nerve cells of one or more ancestors.

(ii) The 'memory traces' of stimuli which had excited R's nervous system during his foetal life and expulsion-birth and which were implanted and preserved in neuronal elements of his nervous system.

As mentioned earlier, it is possible that the presence or absence of unknown biochemicophysical factors influences the degree to which the 'memory traces' of womb messages-stimuli are implanted in foetal neurons. Thus, sometimes the 'memory traces' are implanted more strongly, other times less strongly. The stronger the 'memory traces', the more easily they are reactivated by stimuli which excite the nervous system after expulsion-birth.

EXTERNAL FACTORS

§ 106 External factors are the various external stimuli which excite a specific R's nervous system. They engender in R an internal subjective state (individual experiences) which is absolutely peculiar to him.

Note: The quality and intensity of external stimuli fluctuate at different moments.

§ 107 The threshold of a nervous system's neurons fluctuates at various moments (§ 88). Thus, identical external stimuli which occur at different moments do not'activate' the nervous system in the same way.

CONCLUSIONS

§ 108 Each R is 'activated by stimuli in a manner unique to him which, however, fluctuates at different moments. In other words:

(a) The S & P of R's 'activation' by identical stimuli fluctuate in quality and intensity at different moments. Example: R5's behaviour towards his father was at times aggressive and at times reconciliatory.

(b) The S & P of 'activation' by identical stimuli vary from R to R in quality and intensity. Example: The appearance of a dog caused R8 joy, R14 fear and R12 indifference.

 

 

 

 

 

7 Claude Bernard's term. See Ernest Renan, "L'Oeuvre de Claude Bernard", Paris, 1881.

8 It is for this reason that the terms 'conditions-stimuli' and 'messages-stimuli' are used in the text.

9 Effectors are striated and non-striated muscular fibres.

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