Drug Abuse

Glossary

Abstinence Syndrome. See withdrawal syndrome and physical dependence.

Acute. Of short duration and, usually, of relatively high intensity.

Addiction (drug). An ambiguous term with various meanings in different situations. The concept usually implies a strong psychological dependence or compulsion to use and/or physical dependence (withdrawal symptoms in abstinence) and, often, tolerance and a tendency to increase dose. Many feel that the term has little general scientific value and should be replaced with more specific concepts.

Additive Drug Effect. A response to a combination of drugs which is of greater magnitude than the effect of each drug alone. Various types of positive interaction effects are often further distinguished in the pharmacological literature.

Administration (drug). The process of introducing a drug into the body (e.g., swallowing, inhaling or injecting).

Adverse Reaction (drug). A drug reaction which is considered unpleasant or harmful psychologically and/or physiologically.

After-image (visual). Visual sense impressions remaining after specific external stimulation of the eye has ceased.

Alienation. A sense of estrangement from society, usually characterized by feelings of powerlessness and meaninglessness.

Amotivational Syndrome. A set of symptoms including apathy, ineffectiveness, and non-productiveness, considered to reflect a deficit in general motivation. It has been suggested that such a syndrome may result from the chronic use of certain drugs.

Amphetamines. A group of synthetic stimulant drugs which are commonly used to increase alertness and activity (as 'pep pills') to reduce appetite (as `diet pills') and to produce a state of euphoria. Benzedrine @, Dexedrine ® and Methedrine ® are examples. (Compare speed.)

Anaesthesia. The loss of feeling or sensation, and may imply (with general anaesthetics) a loss of consciousness.

Analgesic. Pain relieving.

Antagonist (drug). A drug which blocks or counteracts certain effects of another drug.

Aphrodisiac. Sex-drive stimulating.

Ataxia. Impaired co-ordination of movement.

Attention. The selective focussing of awareness on certain aspects of the environment.

Autokinetic Effect. The apparent movement of a small stationary point of light viewed in the dark. The perceived movement is often a slow drift with occasional and irregular changes in direction.

Autonomic Nervous System. A division of the nervous system concerned with the regulation of smooth muscles and glands, and generally not subject to voluntary control.

Average. A measure which describes what is typical of a group with respect to some trait, characteristic, or variable. It is often used as synonymous with the mean. (Compare mean, median, mode.)

Barbiturates. A group of sedative drugs derived from barbituric acid, commonly used to reduce tension, facilitate sleep, or as an anaesthetic, or anticonvulsant.

Behavioural Dependence. See psychological dependence.

Bhang. A term used in India for marijuana. It may be smoked or taken as a drink.

Biotransformation. See metabolism.

Blood Alcohol Level (b.a.l. ). The concentration of alcohol in the blood (usually represented in per cent by weight).

Blood Pressure. The pressure of the blood in the arteries, dependent on the action of the heart and the resistance of the blood vessels. Blood pressure is called "diastolic" when the ventricles of the heart are relaxed and "systolic" when the ventricles are contracted.

Breathalyzer. An instrument which gives an estimate of the blood alcohol level by measuring the amount of alcohol in the air exhaled from the lungs.

Cannabidiol (CBD). One of the major cannabinoids generally present in cannabis. CBD has little direct acute effect.

Cannabinoid. A class of Carbon 21 compounds typical of, or present in, Cannabis sativa, including a number of carboxylic acids, analogues and transformation products. Similar synthetic compounds are also termed cannabinoids. THC, CBD, and CBN are the three major groups of cannabinoids.

Cannabinol (CBN). One of the major cannabinoids often present in cannabis. CBN has little direct acute effect. The term has also often been used to refer to the cannabinoids collectively, but this latter usage is becoming uncommon.

Cannabis. A general term for various preparations of Cannabis saliva and cannabinoids. Marijuana, hashish, and THC are examples of different forms of cannabis.

Cannabis sativa L. An herbaceous annual plant which readily grows untended in temperate climates. Also called hemp. The plant is valued for its fibre and for its psychotropic qualities.

Carcinogenic. Cancer producing.

Cardiovascular. Pertaining to the heart and blood vessels. CBD. See cannabidiol.

CBN. See cannabinol.

Central Nervous System (CNS ). That portion of the nervous system consisting of the brain and spinal cord.

Charas. A term used in India for hashish (cannabis resin).

Choice Reaction Time. Reaction time in a task which requires the subject to make a different response to different stimuli presented.

Chromosomes. Thread-like materials in the nucleus of a cell which contain the genes (the factors responsible for transmission of inherited characteristics).

Chronic. Persisting over a long period of time.

Clyde Mood Scale (CMS). A test which can be used to measure changes in human emotions and behaviour produced by drugs. The subject is rated by himself or by others on 48 descriptive adjectives. Six independent factor scores are calculated from these ratings.

CNS. See central nervous system.

Cognition. The intellectual faculty of knowing, thinking, perceiving and reasoning, as opposed to emotion and will.

Compensatory Tracking. A psychomotor tracking test in which the subject is presented with a moving stimulus and a fixed target which represents the desired output. The objective is to compensate for the movement of the stimulus causing it to coincide with the target.

Conjunctival Congestion (or Injection). Reddening of the eye due to enlargement of the minor blood vessels around the outer surface of the eye—commonly known as 'blood-shot eyes'. This is a common effect of cannabis and alcohol.

Contact High. A subjective condition in which persons familiar with the effects of a drug, experience some of these effects without taking the drug, when interacting with persons who are 'high'.

Control Group. A group of subjects similar to the experimental group (and exosed to all the conditions of the investigation) except for the experimen- talpor  selection variable being studied. The use of an appropriate control group enables the investigator to better isolate the effects of the experimental variable, by controlling (or correcting) for the influence of certain extraneous factors.

Correlation. The interrelationship or co-variation of two or more variables so that an increase in the magnitude of one is associated with an increase (positive correlation) or decrease (negative correlation) in the magnitude of the other. The relationship between measures taken from different individuals at a single point in time (between-subject correlation) is distinguished from the relationship between changes in different measures in an individual over time (within-subject correlation).

Criminogenic. Crime producing.

Cross-dependence. A condition in which the administration of one drug can prevent the withdrawal symptoms associated with physical dependence on a different drug.

Cross-tolerance. A condition in which tolerance developed to the administration of one drug also results in a lessened response to a different drug.

Interview Schedule. A list of questions used to structure an interview, the answers to which are recorded by the interviewer rather than the respondent.

Intravenous Injection. The injection of a drug directly into a blood vein (usually with a hypodermic syringe).

Joint. A marijuana cigarette.

Latency. The period of inactivity between stimulation and the response or reaction to that stimulation.

Latin Square. A balanced classification scheme which can be incorporated in a variety of experimental research designs. Subjects are divided into a number of groups equal to the number of different treatment conditions to be investigated. Each group receives all treatment conditions once over the course of the experiment, but in a different sequential order, such that each treatment is given only once per serial position. For example, if three treatment conditions (A, B and C) were employed, they would be given to three subject groups in the following order: Group I-ABC; Group II-BCA; Group III-CAB.

Longitudinal Study. A study of individuals or phenomena at various points in time, designed to determine the developments, or changes in, the conditions under investigation.

LSD (d-lysergic acid diethylamide-25). A semisynthetic derivative of lysergic acid. LSD is one of the most potent psychotropic drugs known, and may be considered the prototype for the psychedelic-hallucinogenic drug class.

Marijuana. A mixture of crushed leaves, flowers, twigs and often seeds of the plant Cannabis sativa.

Mean. One of several measures commonly used to represent a typical or average observation in a set of observations. It is calculated by dividing the sum of all the scores by the number of scores. (Compare average, median, mode.)

Median. One of several measures commonly used to represent a typical observation in a set of observations. It is the value which is greater than half of the values and less than the other half (i.e., the mid-point). (Compare average, mean, mode.)

Metabolism (drug). The physical and chemical processes by which substances taken into the body are broken down or transformed into forms in which they are used or excreted.

Metabolite. A secondary compound derived from a primary substance by the process of metabolism.

MMPI (Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory). A personality test consisting of a series of statements which an individual categorizes as true or false when applied to himself. Scores may be presented as a profile of nine personality factors.

Mode. One of several measures commonly used to represent a typical observation in a set of observations. It is the most frequently occurring score in the set. (Compare average, mean, median.)

Narcotic. This term has had wide and inconsistent usage in lay, legal and scientific circles. Some use the word to characterize any drug which produces stupor, insensibility or sleep; many apply it only to derivatives of the opium plant; others consider the term equivalent to "addiction-producing"; and in legal matters, 'narcotics' may refer to almost any allegedly dangerous drugs. (Compare opiate narcotics.)

Neurology. The scientific study of the structure and function of the nervous system.

Neurosis. An ill-defined psychological disorder, generally, but, not always, less severe or incapacitating than psychosis. Various manifestations of anxiety are common symptoms.

Non-Medical Use of Drugs. Use of drugs which is not indicated or justified for generally accepted medical reasons, whether or not under medical supervision.

Opiate Narcotics. The pharmacologically active alkaloids typical of the opium poppy, papaver somniferum, the semisynthetic derivatives of these alkaloids, and the wholly synthetic substances with similar pharmacological properties. Examples of these are morphine, heroin and Demerol ®, respectively. Opiate narcotics are used medically primarily for their pain-relieving effects. These drugs are also sometimes called opiates (Compare opium, heroin, narcotics.)

Opium. The dried juice from the unripe seed pod of the poppy (papaver somniferum) obtained soon after the petals begin to fall. Morphine, codeine and other active alkaloids can be extracted from the exudate. (Compare opiate narcotics, heroin.)

Overdose (drug). A quantity or dose of a drug larger than that desired or normally taken. Usually implies some adverse or toxic reaction. (Compare poison, toxic.)

Paranoia. A condition usually characterized by delusions of persecution and/ or grandeur. In severe instances paranoia may be considered a sign of psychosis (e.g., paranoid schizophrenia).

Participant Observation. A method of behavioural observation in which an investigator participates, in varying degrees, as a member of the group he is studying. (Compare phenomenology.)

Pathology. A diseased or abnormal condition.

Perception. The processes whereby sensory information is organized, resulting in an awareness of objects or events.

Pharmacology. The scientific study of the effects of drugs on the living organism.

Phenomenology. A method of knowing based on intuition and subjective feelings. A phenomenologist attempts to understand people by immersing himself in their social world and entering into their manner of perceiving their environment.

Physical Dependence. A physiological state of adaptation to continuous use of a drug (normally occurring after the development of tolerance) which results in a characteristic set of acute physiological withdrawal symptoms (often called the abstinence syndrome) when administration of the drug is stopped.

Physiology. The scientific study of physical function in the living organism.

Placebo. A substance without relevant pharmacological activity which is given to an experimental subject (in a control condition) to determine and control for the influence of his motivation, expectations, etc. The subject is not informed of the true nature of the placebo substance. A placebo effect is a reaction entirely due to the subject's set and setting rather than to any pharmacological properties of the substance. (See also double blind, single blind.)

Poison. Any drug in a quantity which exceeds the amount which the body can tolerate without damage or injury. Any drug can be poisonous if the dose is sufficiently high. (Compare toxic.)

Population. The total number of cases (e.g., individuals, residents, households, events) with a given set of characteristics.

Predisposition. A condition or factor which is favourable to, or results in a greater likelihood of, the ocurrence of some other phenomenon. A predisposing factor, alone, is not sufficient as a cause.

Premorbid. Referring to conditions existing prior to the development of some disorder or disease.

Prospective Study. A study designed, in advance, to examine the developments or changes in certain variables in a population over time.

Psychedelic. Mind-manifesting or consciousness-expanding; introducing new or dramatically altered perceptions into the conscious mind. (Compare psychedelic-hallucinogenic drugs.)

Psychedelic-Hallucinogenic Drugs. This group includes drugs often described as psychedelic (mind-manifesting), hallucinogenic (hallucination-producing), psychotomimetic (psychosis-imitating), illusinogenic (illusion-producing) and psychodysleptic (mind-disrupting). While these terms refer to somewhat overlapping effects alleged to occur with these drugs, the various labels emphasize different characteristics. Probably none are entirely adequate as descriptive terms. These drugs produce profound alteration in sensation, mood and consciousness at doses which result in comparatively slight general physiological activity. LSD is often considered the prototype for this drug class . Cannabis is sometimes classified in this group, although others object to this categorization.

Psychiatry. A medical specialty dealing with the prevention, diagnosis and
treatment of problems of psychological adjustment. (Compare psychology.)

Psychoactive. See psychotropic.

Psychological (or Psychic) Dependence. A condition in which a person depends upon something (e.g., a drug) for satisfaction or a feeling of well being. Psychological dependence on a drug may vary in intensity from a mild preference to a strong craving or compulsion to use the drug. In severe cases, unpleasant psychological or behavioural symptoms may result if regular administration of the drug is stopped. A satisfactory operational definition of the concept of psychological dependence is difficult to achieve. Some aspects of this condition are also called behavioural dependence. (Compare physical dependence, habituation.)

Psychology. The scientific study of behaviour and the mind. Psychometric. Based on psychological questionnaires or tests.

Psychomotor Performance. Behaviour associated with the integration and coordination of certain sensory, psychological and muscular functions. Psychomotor tests usually measure such things as muscular co-ordination, behavioural skills, and response speed.

Psychopharmacology. The scientific study of the effects of drugs on psychological and behavioural activity.

Psychosis (or Psychotic). An ambiguous term with a variety of meanings. It has often been used to refer to any severe mental or behavioural disorder, although more specific applications usually imply the presence of delusions or hallucinations and a general inability to test or evaluate external 'reality'. There is often considerable disagreement among authorities as to what exactly constitutes a psychotic state; the diagnosis is often highly subjective and may vary greatly among observers.

Psychotomimetic Drug. A drug which produces psychological effects which resemble, in some respects, the symptoms of psychosis. (Compare psychedelic-hallucinogenic drugs.)

Psychotropic (or Psychoactive) Drugs. Those drugs which alter sensation, mood, consciousness or other psychological or behavioural functions.

Pursuit Tracking. A psychomotor tracking test in which the subject is presented with two indicators—a moving stimulus which represents the desired output and another which is under the subject's control. The objective is to manipulate the apparatus to cause the two indicators to coincide.

Reaction Time. The time interval between the presentation of a stimulus and the subject's response to that stimulus. (See also choice reaction time.)

Reinforcement. The strengthening of a learned response. Often used synony- mously with reward, although this usage is not always appropriate.

Reliability (test). The ability of a test to give consistent results. Although a test must be reliable to be valid, reliability does not necessarily imply test validity.

Response. A reaction elicited by stimulation. Reverse-tolerance. See sensitization.

Sample. A limited number of cases selected from, and usually thought of as being representative of, a particular population.

Schizophrenia. A group of naturally occurring psychotic disorders generally becoming manifest in late adolescence or early adulthood. The term is often considered synonymous with dementia praecox. Contrary to popular belief, schizophrenia does not refer to `split- or 'dual-personality'. (Com- pare psychosis.)

Sedative. A drug which reduces activity and arousal, and facilitates sleep.

Sensitization. A condition in which the response to a certain dose of a drug increases with repeated use. In the cannabis literature this phenomenon is often called "reverse-tolerance". Under some conditions the use of one drug may sensitize an individual to the subsequent use of a different drug as well. (Compare tolerance.)

Set. The psychological state or disposition of an individual, including his expectations, motivations and attitudes, which may affect his drug experience. (Compare setting.)

Setting. The circumstances or environment in which a drug experience occurs which may be a significant factor in determining the drug's effects. (Compare set.)

Signal Detection. The process whereby stimuli with relevant information are distinguished from extraneous stimuli. Certain statistical techniques allow evaluation of the subject's sensory functioning and the criteria he uses in making judgements.

Single Blind. An experimental procedure in which the subject does not know which particular treatment (e.g., the identity or dose of a drug, or a placebo) is being given. This procedure is designed to minimize the influence of the subject's set and setting on the experimental variables. The researcher is aware of treatment conditions at the time of the test, however. (Compare double blind.)

Skin Conductance. The electrical conductance of the skin (usually on the palmar surface of the fingers or hands). This measure is determined primarily by sweat-gland activity and is commonly used as an index of arousal or emotionality. Phasic and tonic factors are often distinguished. The reciprocal of conductance (resistance) may be measured directly. These variables are often called the Galvanic Skin Response (GSR).

Socio-demography. The statistical study of social variables such as age, sex, religion, income, occupation, education and ethnic background.

Somatic. Pertaining to the body.

Speed. A common 'street' name for amphetamines (primarily Methedrine (R)) and, sometimes, certain other stimulant drugs. 'Diet pills' and 'pep pills' may be termed speed.

Spiral After-effect. The distortion of visual perception which follows a period of viewing a rotating spiral.

Statistically Significant. A measurement or score which is statistically highly unlikely to have occurred by chance alone and might therefore be attributed to some specific non-random factor such as an experimental treatment or selection variable.

Stimulant. A drug which increases physiological or psychological activity and arousal.

Stimulus. Energy which acts upon an organism to produce a reaction.

Stratified Sample. A sample which is selected by dividing a population into categories based on certain relevant variables and then sampling a certain number of cases from each category.

Structure-Activity Relationship. The degree to which the effects or actions of a drug are related to different aspects of its chemical structure.

Survey. A study of the incidence of certain conditions in a particular population, which optimally employs standardized techniques to collect information. Often only a representative sample from the population is studied directly.

Syndrome. A set of symptoms or behaviour patterns which characteristically occur together in certain conditions.

Synesthesia. A condition in which a perception characteristically associated with one sensory mode is experienced in another sensory mode as well (e.g., `hearing colours').

TAT (Thematic Apperception Test). A personality test in which the subject makes up a story about each of a series of pictures. The analysis of the story is intended to provide information about the subject's personality.

Teratogenic. Producing physical defects or abnormalities in the offspring (foetus) during pregnancy.

Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC). One of the major groups of cannabinoids. Delta-9 THC is considered to be the principal active constituent (perhaps via metabolites) in natural cannabis preparations. A second active isomer,

THC, is less often present in marijuana or hashish and typically occurs in minute amounts. THC may appear in neutral or carboxylic acid forms (THCA).

Time Estimation. A procedure for measuring subjective time whereby the subject is required to judge the duration of a given interval without the aid of external timing mechanisms.

Time Production. A procedure for measuring subjective time whereby the subject attempts to produce a given time interval without the aid of external timing mechanisms.

Time-Response Relationship. The relationship between the elapsed time since a drug was administered and the intensity of its effects. (Compare dose-response.)

Titrate. To regulate a dose by stopping drug administration when the desired intensity of drug effect is achieved.

Tolerance. A condition in which certain aspects of the response to a dose of a drug decrease with repeated use.

Toxic. A damaging or disrupting drug effect (often used to describe symptoms of poisoning). All drugs have toxic effects if the dose is high enough. (Compare poison.)

Tracking. A psychomotor task involving intermittent or continuous manipulation of an instrument or machine in an attempt to follow a stimulus or maintain a given level of output.

Tranquilizer. A general term for a number of often chemically unrelated drugs used for their calming effects. Major tranquilizers are used primarily for reducing symptoms of psychosis and minor tranquilizers are typically employed to relieve anxiety and tension, and to facilitate sleep. Only the latter drugs are commonly used non-medically.

Two-Flash Fusion Threshold. The shortest time interval between two brief light flashes at which they are seen as separate from one another. Often employed as a measure of cortical arousal.

Validity (test). The ability of a test to measure what it is intended to measure.

Visual Acuity. The ability to perceive small spaces between objects in the visual field. The smaller the space that can be distinguished, the greater the acuity.

Visual Imagery. Visual impressions perceived in the absence of external stimuli. Often tested with eyes closed and/or in darkness.

Withdrawal Syndrome (or Symptoms). A characteristic set of acute adverse physiological and psychological symptoms which occur, after the development of physical dependence, when the regular administration of the drug is stopped (or its effect inhibited by an antagonist). Also called the abstinence syndrome. The characteristics of withdrawal vary with different drugs and with different patterns of use.

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