Drug Abuse

Keywords: cannabis — crackdown — enforcement — Christiania — Copenhagen — Denmark — legislation — protest and reform movements

Setting the context

Several chapters in this monograph have touched on the link between cannabis culture and social movements of the 1960s and 1970s. One of the remnants of this period is the alternative district of Christiania in Copenhagen, Denmark, recently described by Time-Life magazine as 'Europe's last commune.

One of the features of Christiania was an open cannabis market known as Pusher Street. This chapter describes the events preceding and following the closure of Pusher Street in March 2004. The clashes between police and residents described here were more recently echoed in a series of incidents in May 2007, which again brought Christiania into the international limelight

So how does Denmark look in terms of cannabis (')? It has the highest reported lifetime prevalence of cannabis in the EU, at 31.3% of the adult population (EMCDDA, 2005) and although recent use is also relatively high, with 20% of 16- to 24-year-olds reported to have used cannabis in the last month (EMCDDA Danish Focal Point, 2004), it is not exceptionally high.

This chapter is written from a liberal perspective. Its arguments serve to illustrate the resistance law enforcement can face in any attempt to break from established tolerance. The chapter documents the considerable efforts made to close down a long-established drug market. These efforts were ultimately successful, although the author's view suggests that they may have been heavy-handed and not delivered the benefits intended in reducing cannabis use.

Others might take a different perspective. It could equally be argued that the authorities had demonstrated that public drug dealing was an unacceptable behaviour which would not be tolerated and that firm action could be effective. The extent to which longer term use of cannabis is influenced by police action is more difficult to assess. This debate is still ongoing and will not be resolved here. Nonetheless, enforcement clampdowns can be seen as a visible declaration that use of a drug is not socially condoned. Such 'denormalisation may have an impact in the longer term on the attitudes of young people to drug-taking.

Ongoing reporting of cannabis use in Denmark will tell us how current Danish drug strategy is affecting cannabis use and drug prevalence in general. This chapter makes interesting reading as it details the concerted efforts made to close down Pusher Street. Developments in Copenhagen underline the conclusion drawn by Ballotta et al. earlier. Although public perception is that attitudes to cannabis are becoming more liberal in Europe, there are plenty of examples where a tougher approach is observable.

Further reading
Anker, J., Asmussen, V., Kouvonen, P., Tops, D. (eds) (2006), Drug users and spaces for legitimate action, Nordic Council for Alcohol and Drug Research, Helsinki.

Danish National Focal Point (2006, 2007), National report Denmark, European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction, Lisbon. Note: National reports are published annually in November.

Ha kka ra inen, P., Tigerstedt, C., Storgaard, L. (eds) (1996), Discussing drugs and control policy: comparative studies on four Nordic Countries, Nordic Council for Alcohol and Drug Research, Helsinki.

Pernille, W. Lauritsen (2002), Christiania — kort fortalt: guide og historie [Christiania — a short story, guide and history], Aschehoug, Copenhagen.

 

Chapter 10 Cannabis policy: tightening the ties in Denmark

Vibeke Asmussen

General background

Christiania

The self-declared free state of Christiania was set up by activists in 1971. It occupies 34 hectares of military property in central Copenhagen. In 2004, Christiania had a population estimated at between 850 and 1 000 out of a population of over 500 000 in central Copenhagen. An eviction ruling from 1976 has never been enforced, enabling Christiania to develop over 30 years as a centre for alternative culture, crafts and art. As a rare survivor of hippie utopian culture — Time magazine recently called it 'Europe's last commune' (2) — it has long played a role as great divider in Danish politics, simultaneously lauded by the left and damned by the right. Current developments in the late 2000s suggest that the free state's days may be numbered: negotiations between Christiania and the government on its future status have been going on for the past three years (Asmussen, 2007).

Pusher Street

Parallel to its free state ideals, Christiania developed a lucrative criminal sideline, Pusher Street, which its website calls a 'multi-million business'(3) for drugs. In 2004, the cannabis market included about 40 street stalls, attracting both a domestic clientele and cross-border drugs tourists, particularly from Sweden. Clients could openly buy drugs to take away, or could smoke 'in situ' in the street or in Christiania's bars and cafés.

Although 'hard drug' sales were voluntarily banned from 1980, a 6 May 2003 report on Christiania by the Minister of Justice and the Minister of Defence documented links with organised crime and biker gangs. It also reported a 'spillover' effect of hard drugs being sold on the periphery of Christiania, if not actually within it (4) (EMCDDA Reitox Danish Focal Point Report, 2004). Regular police drugs seizures — not to mention the contested estimate of 20 kg per day, discussed below — suggest a high revenue business with efficient logistics, where daily deliveries were made to the point-of-sale. Moreover, experience with arrests of dealers over two decades revealed Pusher Street's resilience to controls: points-of-sale were restaffed and replenished within hours of police action. The May 2003 report concluded that extraordinarily high police resources, most likely for a sustained duration, were needed.

While for many years Pusher Street was effectively a no-go area for uniformed police patrol routines, surveillance and arrests in the area intensified throughout the early 2000s as the Ministry of Justice and the Copenhagen Metropolitan Police Force sought to 'normalise' conditions for drug dealers in line with the rest of the city (EMCDDA Danish Focal Point, 2004). Increased policing of Christiania was accompanied by the nationwide tightening in 2004 of legislative controls over cannabis in Denmark, aimed at curbing both dealing and personal possession of cannabis (EMCDDA ELDD, 2006).

The culmination of police actions in Pusher Street was the March 2004 operation to 'close' the market and arrest its dealers. This chapter describes the nature of the police action in March 2004, together with the judicial process and convictions that followed it, as reported in the Danish press (5). It also discusses the political background to the government's official policy on drugs, launched in 2003, The Fight against Drugs.

Danish drug policy 2001-2005: legal tightening

In the course of the 2000s, Denmark has experienced a tightening in drug policy — and cannabis policy in particular — from a liberal to a relatively repressive regime.

2001's Law Prohibiting Visitors to Designated Places (popularly called 'the Hash-Club Law') was proposed as a response to a moral panic about youths frequenting underground 'hash clubs' (6) (Asmussen and Moesby-Johansen, 2004). The new law enabled police to clamp down on hash clubs, and has since been reinterpreted in 2005 to make it even easier to close down hash clubs. The number of offences that the police needed in order to close a hash club was reduced from 10-15 to 3-5. 2004's Law on Euphoria-inducing Substances was revised to criminalise possession of cannabis. While possession of less than 10 grams of cannabis was not prosecuted before the revision, it is now punished with the minimum of a fine. It is thus illegal to possess any amount of drugs, cannabis included, in Denmark. At the same time, another part of the Law on Euphoria-inducing Substances was revised. Penalties were increased from a fine to a prison term `if drug dealing is performed with children and young people under the age of 18 years' at discos, clubs or music festivals.

Also in 2004, prison sentences for drug crimes were raised during revisions to The Prison Law. The maximum prison sentences for drug crimes were raised from 6 to 10 years, for serious drug crimes (trafficking and dealing) from 10 to 16 years, with even sentences of up to 24 years for particularly serious drug crimes (Storgaard, 2005).

The swing towards repression is not an entirely new phenomenon (7). Storgaard (2005) argues that drugs policy — about different control policies for users versus dealers, 'soft' drugs versus 'hard' drugs, etc. — has been a permanent parliamentary battlefield in Denmark over the last 30 years, with the liberal-conservative and the centre-left wing, headed by the Social Democratic Party, in opposing camps (Storgaard, 2005). The centre-left's position dominated Danish drug policy until 2001. For example, from 1969 to 2004 possession of up to 10 grams of cannabis for personal use was not prosecuted, and onus was placed on combating hard drugs and organised crime, with a blind eye being turned towards small-scale cannabis sales (Grytnes, 2003).

Since the liberal-conservative government came into power in 2001, its self-styled 'zero-tolerance' policy has been to tighten the legal control of drug crimes and to raise the penalties for drug offences, while also increasing access to treatment, particularly in prisons. Moreover, its action plan, The Fight against Drugs, explicitly removes the distinction between seller and buyer, stating that the drug policy targets both supply and demand side, drug dealers and drug users (Danish Government, 2003). The action plan also prioritises actions that protect youths from drug misuse.

Party political divides should also be placed in the context of growing responsiveness to media 'hot button' issues, with drugs suffering both negative connotations on one hand and a stranglehold on headlines on the other (Christie and Bruun, 1985). Thus, the first new legal instrument, the Hash Club Law, was as much the work of the former social democratic government as of the new liberal-conservative government. Moreover, at the same time that laws were tightened, liberalising proposals by the centre-left opposition — respectively to decriminalise cannabis on almost the same terms as the Netherlands, to implement safe injection rooms, and to implement heroin trials — were all overturned, suggesting a general hostile climate towards liberalisation.

So what does this legal tightening mean in practice? First, the former differentiation between users and dealers, 'soft' drugs and 'hard' drugs is no longer the heart of Danish drug policy. Use of any drug is perceived as drug misuse, and in particular, use of cannabis is now criminalised. This effectively brings the appreciable numbers of cannabis consumers in Denmark within reach of prosecution (EMCDDA Danish Focal Point, 2005; Storgaard, 2005).

Another aspect of these changes is the concern for young people. On the one hand, adolescent drug users have been criminalised by the legislation covering possession of cannabis for personal use. On the other hand, they are protected by the revision of drug dealing to young people and the closure of illicit dealing premises under the Hash Club Law (Asmussen and Moesby-Johansen, 2004).

Finally, sentences for drug crimes have been raised and can be compared to sentences for manslaughter and homicide. The former focus in Danish drug policy on organised crime is now also widened and includes 'zero tolerance' towards all kinds of dealers. It is this last change which provided the leverage to police to tackle the long-standing quandary of Pusher Street.

The Pusher Street raid: 50 cannabis dealers and security guards arrested

The date 16 March 2004 represents a milestone in Danish drug policy. At 5 am police action to close down Pusher Street began. Bulldozers and several hundred armed police officers entered Christiania and removed the small wooden, zinc-roofed stalls where cannabis was sold (Asmussen, 2007). Simultaneously, over 50 cannabis dealers and security guards were arrested in different locations in Copenhagen and remanded in custody. Major police actions had occurred in Christiania before, as Laursen (1996) and the EMCDDA Danish Focal Point (2005) point out, but this was the first time that a police action was planned so thoroughly with the aim to actually close down Pusher Street. This was also the first time so many dealers (and security guards) were arrested simultaneously.

Surveillance of Pusher Street was carried out by police between October 2003 and March 2004, involving videotaping of Pusher Street and the tapping of radio communication and phone calls. Tapped phone calls and radio communications were especially important in enabling the police to charge people for being members of, or employed by, a private security force that warned the dealers and customers about police activity. This security force was dubbed Christiania's Intelligence Service by the police, and it represented a key argument for the police, the judges, and prosecutors in categorising Pusher Street as 'well organised'. The police claimed the security force was regimented into six posts in different parts of Christiania from where guards could warn dealers if the police were approaching. Police argued that the guards worked in shifts from these posts and communicated via radio and cell phones, substantiating claims with both tapped phone calls and radio communications between the guards and with a duty roster found in one of the managers' houses. The duty roster consisted of initials of the guards, their phone numbers and a list of day and evening shifts. The police also worked as undercover agents, buying cannabis at the stalls in Pusher Street. Swedish and Norwegian policemen were used together with the Danish police. Using undercover police as a method of investigation is exceptional in Danish police work and requires court permission. With the videotapes and the undercover police work the police systematically registered the dealers that operated from the different stalls. It was on the basis of the videotapes and the undercover police work that the police estimated that about 3.6 tonnes of cannabis was sold in Pusher Street during the six months of surveillance. The amount was, however, disputed by the defence lawyers as well as by the defendants, and the judges later found these calculations too uncertain.

The pre-trial detention

The dealers and security guards arrested on 16 March were remanded in custody in solitary confinement by the City Court of Copenhagen. The pre-trial detention was prolonged multiple times on the grounds that the police needed time to investigate and prepare the trials. A few were released after two months, but about 40 of the defendants spent three months in solitary confinement, the legal upper limit for solitary confinement in Denmark. At the same time, the pre-trial procedures were held behind closed doors on account of police investigations. In July several of the dealers were discharged, but during the summer and autumn of 2004 the City Court continued to prolong pre-trial detention, three to four weeks at a time, with the security guards in particular having their custody prolonged. Five months after 16 March, 36 defendants were still in custody. On several occasions when a defendant was discharged by the City Court the prosecutor immediately appealed to the High Court, who on all occasions decided to confirm the prolonged pre-trial detentions. The defence attorneys protested each time the City Court prolonged the pre-trial detentions, and called into question the closed doors at the pre-trial procedures.

Since the court meetings were held behind closed doors the detailed arguments behind the prolongations were kept secret from the public. The only reason given was that the defendants could jeopardise the police investigations as well as the presumed risk that the defendants would take up their criminal activities again, that is, dealing cannabis, and this risk was considered especially high since they were 'well organised'.

In the beginning of September one of the defence lawyers received permission from the Danish Board of Appeal Permission to try one of the cases with the long pre-trial detentions in the Supreme Court. In late November the Supreme Court confirmed the decision made by the High Court that the defendants should continue to be in custody. The reason given was, again, that the cannabis sale had been extensive and well organised, which was reason enough to keep them in custody. Therefore, in late November 2004, 36 of the initial 50 defendants were still in custody. They had at that time been in custody for almost nine months. Media reports mentioned two of the defendants in custody that were affected by illness. One suffered from claustrophobia, the other had gained 23 kg, and as a consequence suffered repeatedly from thrombosis in his legs. These cases were reported in the news because their defence lawyer complained about the defendants being in custody while suffering different forms of illnesses. The City Court in Copenhagen discharged the two defendants, but the prosecutor appealed to the High Court. Here, one was discharged, the other one who suffered from claustrophobia was moved to a larger cell and maintained in custody.

The charges

The defendants were charged as dealers or as security guards. The dealers were charged with extensive cannabis dealing from stalls in Pusher Street and for having sold between 25 and 150 kg of cannabis in the period the police held Pusher Street under surveillance. The amount that each individual dealer was charged with was based on calculations made from the surveillance and the undercover police work. The dealers were 'and could only be' charged for the amount of cannabis they had sold themselves, that is, for specific dealing. Thirty of the defendants were charged as dealers, and some were facing up to three-and-a-half years of imprisonment.

The security guards did not sell cannabis themselves but secured that all the dealers could run their business, and were therefore charged for complicity. The police calculated that 20 kg of cannabis was sold every day in Pusher Street and multiplied this by the days the police monitored Pusher Street, resulting in total sales of several tonnes of cannabis. Since the guards worked on a structured duty roster in day and evening shifts, they could be charged collectively, and thus faced up to four years' imprisonment.

This was the first time in Denmark that persons were charged collectively for drug crimes. The police claimed that the security force during the preceding years had developed from individual persons warning cannabis dealers with whistles if the police were in the neighbourhood, to a structured force with duty rosters, managers organising the shifts, and payment by the dealers, thus making guarding a lucrative business. The defendants themselves, however, described themselves as a kind of 'buffer' between the police and the dealers in Christiania, ensuring that any trouble accompanying police presence in Christiania did not escalate. They also claimed that they ensured hard drugs or biker gang members did not appear in Christiania. This was highlighted by the defence lawyers, who also denied the existence of a formal Christiania Intelligence Service.

The trials and sentences

At the end of August 2004 the first trial began. Two dealers — a stallkeeper and a helper — were charged with having sold 114 and 30 kg of cannabis respectively. However, the sentences that the two dealers received in December only convicted them for selling 25 and 10 kg of cannabis respectively, with accompanying prison sentences of one-and-a-half years and one year. The method of calculation that the police had used was accepted by the judges, but only in part: they accepted what was to be seen on
the videotapes and the testimonies from the undercover policemen, but in general the means of calculating what was sold from the stalls in the whole period was deemed too uncertain. After this first trial, 10 of the defendants that were charged with having sold less than 40 kg of cannabis were released from custody by the City Court on the account that the sentence would no longer be equivalent with the pre-trial detention.

Throughout December 2004 and January 2005 the rest of the dealers were convicted. However, it was not until the end of May 2005 that the last trial ended. The dealers were all convicted for having sold less cannabis than they were charged with. They received sentences of between 30 days and 2 years and 6 months. In total, the convicted dealers got 35 years of imprisonment. Only one defendant was found not guilty.

The joint trial against the security guards began in May 2005. Seventeen persons were charged for being security guards in the Christiania Intelligence Service and three were charged for being managers of the service. The latter organised the shifts, supervised the security guards and collected money from the cannabis dealers. All the defendants pleaded not guilty to the charges. Based on tapped phone calls and radio communication between the guards and the three managers, the City Court found all guards, but only two of the three managers guilty. The two managers received a two-and-a-half years prison sentence each. The security guards got a sentence between one and two-and-a-half years, depending on how long they had been employed in the security force. In total, the 19 defendants received 34 years of imprisonment.

Concluding remarks

This report of the arrested dealers and security guards illustrates how the Danish government's 'zero-tolerance' drugs policy is implemented in practice. The closure of Pusher Street was clearly a 'show of strength', as seen in the Ministry of Justice and Ministry of Defence report submitted in 2003, detailed planning by police, the use of undercover agents, the simultaneous arrest of so many dealers and security guards, the involvement of detectives from Norway and Sweden, etc. Also unusual was the use of the upper level of solitary confinement (three months), as well as of extremely long pre-trial detentions (up to 10 months) for what in effect was retail street dealing rather than wholesale trafficking of drugs.

In terms of police success, the convictions could be viewed as a mixed bag. Many of the dealer defendants were discharged after sentence for time served in pre-trial custody, with none being convicted of selling the full volume of cannabis claimed by police. Conversely, the collective charging of the security guards resulted in all but
one being found guilty as charged. This latter result highlights the extension of Danish drug legislation beyond dealers towards those aiding and abetting drug sales, and the lowering of the threshold for what is considered 'organised' and 'well organised' drug crime.

One can question the rationale behind the sudden departure from the 'blind eye' that was turned to cannabis dealing for about 30 years in Pusher Street. Nothing indicates that cannabis dealing had changed or increased in years preceding before the closure of Pusher Street. Moreover, when denying the existence of the Christiania Intelligence Service the defence lawyers pointed to the self-regulation within Christiania with regard to hard drugs, even the cooperation of individuals as mediators during any confrontations between police and dealers. The clampdown must therefore be viewed as a political and 'moral' change in attitude rather than a change in cannabis dealing practice.

The most important question is, what effect did closing Pusher Street have? Not much, it seems. Cannabis dealing is still carried out in Christiania, according to the police as well as personal observation. However, cannabis dealing no longer occurs in public from small stalls in Pusher Street, but more discreetly from person to person. In Copenhagen in general there is also just as much cannabis circulating, both according to the police and the Municipality of Copenhagen. However, the market has dispersed into many different and new areas, with some anxiety that cannabis is now even more easily available to young people (Asmussen, 2007).

So, the recent change in Danish drug policy seems to follow what scholars on drug policy like Kilmer (2002) and Korf (2002) in general argue: drug policy, whether repressive or liberal, does not influence either a decrease or an increase of cannabis use. The closure of Pusher Street is more an example of how a government pursues a 'zero tolerance' policy rather than a serious attempt to solve drug problems. Seen in the context of the gradual dismantling of the Christiania commune, it can also be viewed as a moral rejection of laissez-faire.

(1) General information and analysis about the Danish drugs situation is compiled each year by the EMCDDA's national focal point in its national report and country situation summary. See www.emcdda.europa.eu/index.cfm?nNodelD=435

(2) Christopher Thompson, 'Europe's last commune braces for baffle', Time magazine, 23 July 2007. Available at: www.time.comitime/world/article/0,8599,1637000,00.html

(3) www.christiania.org, accessed February 2007.

(4) On 24 April 2005 a shootout among cannabis gangs left one dead and three injured.

(5) Descriptions of the arrests, trials and sentences are based on a corpus of newspaper articles published between March 2004 and July 2005 in three Danish newspapers: Jyliands-Posten, Beriingske Tidende and Politiken. A second source of information — a description of the sentences handed out — is taken from the Copenhagen City Court's website (www.domstol.dk/). For a detailed description of the closure of Pusher Street, see Asmussen, 2007.

(6) Hash clubs are illicit speakeasies at private addresses where cannabis can be bought. The hash club law states that an apartment's inhabitant can be forbidden to receive visitors if he or she is known 'to practice a systematically illegal business which can disturb and endanger his neighbours'.

(7) On the Danish drug policy combating hard drugs in the 1990s and the effects it had on hard drug users see, for example Frantszen (2003) and Laursen and Jepsen (2002).

References

Asmussen, V. (2007), ‘Danish cannabis policy in practice: the closing of Pusher Street and the cannabis market in Copenhagen’, in Fountain, J., Korf, D. (eds) (2007), Drugs in society: European perspectives, Radcliffe Publishing, Abingdon.

Asmussen, V., Moesby-Johansen, C. (2004), ‘The legal response to illegal “hash clubs” in Denmark’, in Decorte, T., Korf, D. (eds), European studies on drugs and drug policy, VUB Press, Brussels, 75–98.

Christie, N., Bruun, K. (1985), Den Gode Fiende. Narkotikapolitikk i Norden, Universitetsforlaget, Oslo.

Danish Government (2003), Kampen mod narko — handlingsplan mod narkotikamisbrug [The Fight against Drugs — Action Plan against Drug Misuse], Indenrigs- og Sundhedsministeriet, Copenhagen www.im.dk/imagesupload/dokument/Kampen_mod_narko.pdf

EMCDDA Reitox Danish Focal Point (2004), National report 2003 [Narkotikasituation i Danmark], Sundhedsstyrelsen, Copenhagen www.emcdda.europa.eu/index.cfm?nNodeID=435

EMCDDA Reitox Danish Focal Point (2005), National report 2004 [Narkotikasituation i Danmark],
Sundhedsstyrelsen, Copenhagen
www.emcdda.europa.eu/index.cfm?nNodeID=435

EMCDDA Reitox Danish Focal Point (2006), National report 2005 [Narkotikasituation i Danmark],
Sundhedsstyrelsen, Copenhagen
www.emcdda.europa.eu/index.cfm?nNodeID=435

Frantszen, E. (2003), ‘Drug enforcement in Copenhagen: negotiating space’, in Houborg Pedersen,
E., Tigerstedt, C. (eds), Regulating drugs – between users, the police and social workers, NAD
Publications 43, Helsinki, 75–84.

Grytnes, R. (2003), ‘Policing a drug scene – strategies, practices and dilemmas’, in Houborg Pedersen
, E., Tigerstedt, C. (eds), Regulating drugs – between users, the police and social workers, NAD
Publications no. 43, Helsinki, 85–100.

Kilmer, B. (2002), ‘Do cannabis possession laws influence cannabis use?’, in Cannabis 2002 Report,
Technical Report of the International Scientific Conference Brussels, Brussels, 101–123.

Korf, D. (2002), ‘Dutch coffee shops and trends in cannabis use’, Addictive Behaviours 27:
851–866.

Laursen, L. (1996), ‘Scandinavia’s tug of war on drugs’, in Hakkarainen, P., Laursen, L., Tigerstedt,
C. (eds), Discussing drugs and control policy. Comparative studies on four Nordic countries, NAD
Publications 31, Helsinki, 33–82.

Laursen, L., Jepsen, J. (2002), ‘Danish drug policy — an ambivalent balance between repression and
welfare’, The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 582: 20–36.

Storgaard Laursen, L. (2005), ‘Trends in cannabis use and changes in cannabis policy in Denmark’,
in Kraus, L., Korf, D. J. (eds), Research on Drugs and Drug Policy from a European Perspective,
Pabst Science Publishers, Lengerich, 35–47.

Danish legal texts
Law prohibiting visitors to designated places (Act no. 471 of 7 June 2001).
Law on euphoria-inducing substances (Act no. 445 of 9 June 2004).
The prison law (Act no. 445 of 9 June 2004).
All of the above are available at: www.retsinfo.dk

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