A few references, out of the many which are avilalae, may serve to illustrate the social situation in some countries.    Of course, the relation between cannabis, violence and crime also forms part of the social aspect of the effect of cannabis. Because of its particular importance, however, it appeared advisable to devote a special chapter to the criminological side before turning to the more general considerations, which now follow.

Quite recently, Vaille, Stern and Verde(48)have given a remarkable review of the world situation, particularly from the social standpoint.    It is striking that only men are addicted to this vice, apart from a very small percentage of woman in some countries where cannabism is endemic for instance, in the Union of South Africa(43) and in Brazil.    In those parts of North Africa under French rule, cannabism constitutes a serious social problem. From the legal and social point of view, the abolition of the monopolies in Tunisia and French Morocco (in 1953 and 1954, respectt is a courageous step forward.

In Egypt, cannabis abuse still presents a grave problem. A. Abdulla explains that chronic abuse of the drug leads to physical and mental lassitude, disinclination te work, lack of perseverance, idleness, loss of initiative for economic or profeisio progress. The chronic abuser loses all self-control, is irritable and quarrelsome, neglects his family and prefers the company of other cannabis abusers; his intellect powers are profoundly affected and finally he develops a state of indifference and apathy. During walks in Cairo in the company of the writer, Dr Abdulla was able to reccgnise (and confirm) Chronic cannabis abusers by their sallow complexion and vacar look.

According to his statement, about 70% of the workers, 60% of the armed forces m 40% of the fellaheen take cannabis. Whilst in former centuries poor people in particular used it, within the last decades it has been smoked by all classes, including intelligent and wealthy persons. He further insists that in Egypt, even 1953, not only the common people but also learned persons and eVen many pkwaiciana considered cannabis as innocuous.

Rodriques Diago chief of the central office of forensic medicine in Barranquilla (Colombia) stated that in the corresponding Department (province) "an increasing campaign had been undertaken against the marihuana vice", but that in spite of the efforts of the health, police and education authorities, the number of prosecutions has progressively increased during the last few years. As an illustration he refers to the number of cases in which samples have been sent to his office for determination of the cannabis content; in 1945 - 1, in 1946 - 15, increasing progressively to 93 in 1952.

An Interstate Conference on Maconha (the Brazilian States of Pernambuco, Sergipe, Alagoas and Bahia) which took place in December 1946,(7)suggested to the respective Governments, among other things, destruction of the cannabis plantations, limitation of its production to use for medical or industrial purposes, further legal measures to consolidate and activate the repression and prophylaxis of cannabism, the discussion of drug addiction, particularly cannabism, in congresses and other gatherings of psychiatrists and public-health officers, special surveillance of delinquents, sailors, prostitutes and prisoners, special protection of juveniles, including abandoned and maladjusted children, encouragement of investigations, multiplication of dispensaries for mental health and of measures to discover psychopaths, which at the same time calls for prophylaxis against drug addiction as well as the treatment and imprisonment llectual respectively, of maconha smokers and traffickers; and study of the pharmocalogical, clinical, psychological and sociological aspects of the problem.

In his competent commentary on these suggestions R. Cordeiro de Farias,President of the Brazilian National Commission for the Control of Narcotic Drugs, while supporting many of the above points, particularly the 'first two, disapproved of a an recommendation regarding educational propaganda among juveniles, which he deemed to be dangerous, particularly in adolescence. This standpoint agrees with that of the League of Nations Opium Advisory Committee, and of the Commission on Narcotic Drugs.

On 13 June 1947, in the capacity of Chairman of the above Commission, he fixed rules for the destruction of the cannabis plant.

Décio Parreiras, member of the same Brazilian Commission, has given a wide review of the situation in his country. It is not possible to indicate even an approximate figure for the number of cannabis smokers. He visited all the northern provinces wher cannabis is produced and/or used and gives illustrative details.    He even mentions "good addresses" where, in the different States and towns of Brazil, cannabis can be found,. bars, squares, etc., and a list of "grandes traficantes e grandes fumadores" (great traffickers and heavy smokers).    The general result of this report is the confirmation that much maconha is used in the northern parts of the country.

There were only about 1% of women among the maconha smokers, e.g., in Bahia (and these were prostitutes), because women are more peaceable than men, are more domesticated, have less social conflicts and are more reliaious. Of 100 smokers, 10 were white, 44 were.negroes, 46 mulattos.    It seems, however, that the preponderand (of coloured men is more a social consequence than a racial factor. 90% were bachelor: 95% had character defects. In conclusion, Parreiras refers te the earlier statements When the use of marihuana does not lead to pure and well-defined alienation, it frequently ends in mental instability."

E. de Oliveira refers to the spread of the use of cannabis in Brazil, in spite of the efforts of the health and police authorities, particularly in important harbour like Rio de Janeiro and Santos (see also (51)).    In the capital, maconha smoking is indulged in equally by both low and high social clasees, according to a police report quoted by the author. The smart aTexabana quarter of Rio de Janeiro, he adds, is now named the "land of vices". However, he recornizes the intense activity of the Federal Public Health Service in its fight against maconha, and makes proposals for ax even more intensive campaign.

Shortly afterwards, however, R. Ccrdeiro de Ferias, cenfirmed that the maconha problem is on the "way to a satisfactory solution".(1C)

Jardines Carrion refers to the situation in Cuba, which has already been discussed in detail.(57) The small drug peddler sells about 200 to 300 marihuana cigarettes per day and many more during the weekend and on holidays; and there are thousands of peddlers in Cuba. These estimates show the extent of this vice. Jardines oarrifal presents a colourful picture of the special jargon of the marihuana smokers and of the customs they observe whilst smoking together.

H. C. Mookerjee, Vice-President of the Constituent Assembly in India, has given, in a series of articles,(33)partly the result of personal investigation and observation in various-areas, and partly based on information supplied by social service workers during his trips, a vivid picture of the cannabis situation in his country as it existed towards the end of the pre-partition days. Among many other details he states for instance, that in western areas of Bengal the large consumption "is attributed, and with justice, to the considerable numbers of skilled and unskilled workers employed" in various industries.  A large peroentage of them consists of people accustomed in their own homes to the consumption of intoxicants and when, they have to work amid unhygienic conditions, so notorious a feature of industrial life in India, they naturally fly to ganja for what has been called temporary release."    In Bihar, the use of bhang as a drink was common, but is gradually disappearing, partly because of the spread of education and partly because of the increasing use of alcoholic beverages, especially country-spirit. In Orissa, according to Mookerjee, Brahmins and other high caste Hindus who are forbidden the use of tobacco, indulge freely in ganja as a drink. Ganja is said to be four times more potent than bhang.

Of the United Provinces he says that "it has been held that the use of bhang is of late rapidly disappearing among the well-to-do classes and is being replaced by that of alcohol", It is interesting to note that in some provinces or states the use of some specified form of cannabis preparation for pleasure is allowed, or it may be the favourite form, while another type is not favoured or is even forbidden.

There are people who prefer charas - on account of its higher narcotic content - when they no longer experience the same sensations of intoxication as they did when they first started ganja smoking.* Bhang„ eaten as a sweet ("Majum") by people of all castes and creeds, is regarded as a general tonic by the lower classes. Bhang as a cooling beverage is used in several provinces or states during the summer months. No part of the country is free from cannabis consumption which in one form or another has strongly entrenched itself in the life of the population. Repeatedly reference is made to the use of cannabis by fakirs. It is generally correct to say that the consumption is always higher in urban than in rural areas; this is particularly true of large industrial centres with a large labour population in low or very low economic circumstances; for them it is a cheap method of securing temporary oblivion.

The same is true for mining areas. The high incidence of cannabis in religious centres and important places of pilgrimage is explained by the presence of large number of mendicants. In the different states or provinces, mostly one form or another of cannabis preparation prevails.

*Attention should, however, be drawn to "The Surprising Extinction of the Charas Traffic", wiith an instructive chart showing the consumption of the different cannabis preparations (Bull. Narcot. 1953, 5, No. 1, 1).