INTRODUCTION

 

Recent studies (Gold et al, 1978; Washton et al, 1980a) showing that the non-opiate antihypertensive agent, clonidine hydrochloride, suppresses signs and symptoms of opiate withdrawal, have suggested that clonidine and similar drugs might be useful in the clinical management of opiate detoxification. The fact that clonidine is not an opiate drug and does not itself produce addiction or euphoria suggests some unique and potentially useful applications of this medication in the treatment of opiate-dependent persons. For example, clonidine might be used to block the emergence of abstinence symptoms during a gradual methadone detoxification. Clonidine might also serve as a transitional treatment between opiate dependence and induction onto the long-acting opiate antagonist, naltrexone (Resnick et al, 1979). If withdrawal symptoms were controlled by clonidine, patients might be able to abruptly discontinue chronic opiate use and remain abstinent during the minimum 10-day opiate-free period that is required before starting naltrexone aftercare treatment. In general, clonidine might increase the chances of detoxification success and allow patients greater access to naltrexone and drug-free modalities.

 

Since the initial report (Gold et al, 1978) of clonidine's withdrawal-suppressing effects in opiate addicts, a variety of clinical studies have explored the usefulness of this medication in opiate detoxification, as reviewed recently by Washton and Resnick (1981). The present chapter describes the outpatient studies conducted at New York Medical College with patients addicted to heroin and/or methadone. Also described is recent work with lofexidine, an analogue of clonidine that appears to be a safer and more effective non-opiate treatment for opiate withdrawal.

 

CLONIDINE

 

Our first study (Washton et al, 1980a) sought to replicate the single-dose findings of Gold et al (1978) in order to gather additional information on the physiological and subjective effects of clonidine in opiate-dependent humans. A single oral dose of 0.2 or 0.3 mg clonidine was administered to 12 opiate-dependent outpatients experiencing acute withdrawal from heroin and/or methadone. Blood pressure and ratings for the presence and severity of withdrawal symptoms were taken immediately before clonidine administration and at 2 hours postclonidine. The data showed that clonidine produced a marked and significant reduction in subjective withdrawal severity. The particular symptoms reduced most effectively by clonidine were chills, lacrimation, rhinorrhea, yawning, stomach cramps, sweating, and muscle and joint aches. Marked reductions in anxiety and restlessness were also reported. Side effects were dry mouth, drowsiness, and a decrease of 10-15 mmHg in systolic and diastolic blood pressure. None of the 12 subjects experienced euphoria or any other opiate-like effects from clonidine, and none reported unpleasant side effects.

 

We subsequently explored clonidine's usefulness as an adjunct to methadone dose reductions and also as a transitional treatment during the 1.0-day period between opiate dependence and naltrexone. In an initial outpatient trial (Washton and Resnick, 1980a) with 20 methadone-dependent volunteers, an attempt was made to determine whether clonidine could be used to prevent emergence of abstinence symptoms during the course of gradual methadone dose reductions. This study addressed the issue of prophylactic blockade of the abstinence syndrome in contrast to the previous studies (Gold et al, 1978; Washton et al, 1980a) that used clonidine to reduce ongoing withdrawal symptoms. Patients taking 10-50 mg methadone daily were inducted onto clonidine doses of 0.5-0.9 mg per day before initiating methadone dose reductions of 5 or 10 mg per week. All patients had been taking clonidine for at least two weeks before the methadone detoxification was begun. Ten of the 20 patients (50 percent) reached a zero methadone dose and remained opiate-free on clonidine for 10 days before starting naltrexone. Although the patients who successfully completed the detoxification generally complained of less severe and fewer symptoms than the patients who failed, it was evident that clonidine did not totally prevent the emergence of withdrawal symptoms. Patients who complained of intense withdrawal discomfort tended to be those who had been taking clonidine for more than three weeks, suggesting the development of tolerance to clonidine's antiwithdrawal effects.

 

In another outpatient trial (Washton et al, 1980b), clonidine was administered to 88 opiate-dependent volunteers following abrupt discontinuation of methadone or heroin. Forty-three patients had received methadone 5-40 mg daily (mean 15 mg), and the other 45 patients had been taking illicit methadone or heroin in varying doses. On day I, all patients received placebo methadone and started a self-administered clonidine dose regimen of 0.1 mg qid with gradual increases as needed over succeeding days. The maximum daily clonidine dose averaged 0.8 mg (range 0.3-1.2 mg). On day 10, patients who showed opiate-free urines and denied using any illicit opiates while on clonidine were given a naloxone challenge of 2.0 mg IV to assess their readiness to begin treatment with naltrexone. Seventy-two percent of the 43 methadone maintenance patients and 50 percent of illicit opiate users completed detoxification and started naltrexone treatment. Those who were on the higher doses of heroin and/or methadone had the greatest difficulty in completing detoxification. All patients reported that clonidine reduced, but did not eliminate their withdrawal discomfort. Lethargy and insomnia were the most frequent and persistent residual complaints. Most patients experienced some mild dizziness or lightheadedness upon standing, but these side effects were unacceptably severe in only six cases. No single clonidine dose regimen was best for all patients, because sensitivity to clonidine's effects varied widely among individuals. To achieve effective control of withdrawal symptoms without untoward side effects, it was necessary to individualize the clonidine dose regimen according to each patient's blood pressure and symptomatology.

 

Rawson et al (1981) provided additional evidence of clonidine's effectiveness in outpatient opiate withdrawal and found that the availability of naltrexone aftercare treatment significantly increased detoxification success rates. Among patients offered clonidine as a transitional treatment between methadone and naltrexone, nine of 12 (75 percent) achieved 10 days of opiate abstinence and started naltrexone, whereas only three of 12 (25 percent) in a group offered clonidine but no naltrexone achieved 10 days abstinence. The differential efficacy of the clonidine detoxification procedure between the two groups of subjects did not appear to result from differences in the degree to symptom relief, but rather from different subject attitudes toward their detoxification. Subjects in the clonidine/naltrexone group perceived the clonidine detoxification as a transitional treatment with a specific goal. Naltrexone induction on day 10 postmethadone was perceived as a clear endpoint to the detoxification. Subjects in this group frequently expressed the feeling that they had "made it" when they started naltrexone and many reported feeling relief that once on naltrexone they no longer had to struggle with the urges and cravings to use opiates. It appeared that if the clonidine procedure was perceived by subjects as being for a specific number of days with a clear goal and endpoint such as starting naltrexone, most of them could exert sufficient control to abstain from opiate use for the 10 days postmethadone. Subjects in the clonidine-only group did not view the detoxification process as having a clear endpoint or goal and this seemed to contribute to their inability to resist opiate cravings.

 

Although the clinical studies summarized above were encouraging, none compared clonidine against other detoxification methods. We recently reported a double-blind outpatient study (Washton and Resnick, 1980b) in which 26 volunteers dependent on methadone (15-30 mg daily) were randomly assigned to a clonidine or methadone detoxification procedure. The clonidine procedure (N=13) consisted of abrupt substitution of clonidine for methadone on day 1 of the study. The methadone procedure (N=13) consisted of methadone dose reductions of 1 mg per day until a zero dose was reached. Both procedures were placebo controlled with daily regimens of active or placebo clonidine tablets individualized by a physician who was not aware of the patient's assigned treatment group. No significant difference was found between the clonidine and methadone procedures in terms of the numbers of patients who completed a 10-day opiate-abstinence period after the last dose of active methadone. Four of 13 subjects (38 percent) were successful with clonidine, and six of 13 (46 percent) were successful with methadone (p > 0.05, chi-square test). Major withdrawal symptoms were nearly identical for both groups and consisted mainly of lethargy, restlessness, and insomnia. The clinical course of subjects was distinctly different for the clonidine and methadone procedures, making it impossible to maintain truly double-blind conditions. Subjects taking clonidine reported sedation, dry mouth, occasional dizziness, and onset of withdrawal symptoms within the first 2-3 days of the study. By contrast, subjects taking methadone reported no sedation, dry mouth, or dizziness, and no major withdrawal symptoms until the final week of the procedure when methadone doses were approaching zero milligrams.

 

LOFEXIDINE

 

Clonidine's efficacy in suppressing opiate withdrawal has suggested that other alpha-2 noradrenergic agonists might also be effective in opiate withdrawal but without untoward side effects. Lofexidine is an investigational analogue of clonidine that has been shown to suppress opiate withdrawal in morphine-dependent rats (Shearman et al, 1980). Clinical testing in human hypertensive patients (Maner et al, 1980; St. John LaCorte et al, 1981) has suggested that lofexidine's sedative and hypotensive effects are less potent than those of clonidine.

 

We have recently completed an open clinical trial of lofexidine in opiate detoxification (Washton et al, 1981). As in our earlier studies with clonidine, the clinical test of lofexidine's usefulness was conducted in an outpatient setting with the measure of detoxification success defined by induction onto naltrexone. Our subjects were fifteen methadone-dependent male outpatient volunteers who showed no evidence of medical or psychiatric illness and gave informed consent to the study which involved an abrupt switch from methadone to lofexidine. On day 1, subjects received their usual methadone dose (10-25 mg) and began a self-administered lofexidine dose regimen of 0.1 mg two or three times daily. On day 2, methadone was abruptly discontinued with subjects receiving a matched placebo methadone solution and the lofexidine dosage was increased to 0.1 mg four times daily. Subsequently, the lofexidine dose was increased as needed to no more than 0.4 mg four times daily according to symptoms and side effects. All subjects were told that the detoxification procedure would take 11 days and that naltrexone could be started on day 11 (10 days postmethadone) provided that they used no illicit opiates during the study as confirmed by the absence of a precipitated withdrawal reaction to intravenous naloxone challenge (2.0 mg) on day 11. Subjects who did use illicit opiates during the first 10 days postmethadone were allowed to continue on lofexidine and the naloxone challenge was postponed to the first opportunity where it posed minimal risk of precipitating a withdrawal reaction (ie, to at least 5 days after the last opiate use) but no later than day 21 of the study. Subjects who passed the naloxone challenge and started naltrexone on days 11-21 were considered successful detoxifications. Those who returned to using opiates and failed to begin naltrexone by day 21 were considered unsuccessful.

 

Successful detoxification and induction onto naltrexone was accomplished with ten of the fifteen subjects. All patients rated lofexidine as moderately to extremely effective in reducing most of the commonly experienced withdrawal symptoms: insomnia, lethargy, and muscle/bone pain were the most frequent residual complaints. None of the ten subjects reported unacceptable withdrawal symptoms while taking lofexidine. Those who failed to complete the detoxification procedure cited opiate craving rather than withdrawal discomfort as the major reason for returning to opiate use. None of the subjects reported ovesedation, dizziness, or lightheadedness from lofexidine, despite rapid increases in the dose to as much as 1.6 mg per day within the first 5 days. The maximum daily lofexidine dose ranged from 0.6 mg to 1.6 mg across the ten subjects with an average of 1.2 mg. There was no significant lowering of blood pressure even at the maximum lofexidine dose (mean prelofexidine BP; 115/74 mmHg: mean BP at maximum

lofexidine dose; 115/76 mmHg). Dry mouth and mild drowsiness were the most commonly reported side effects. Reductions in the daily lofexidine dose, by 0.2 to 0.6 mg per day at the end of the study produced no symptomatic complaints or significant changes in blood pressure.

 

DISCUSSION

While our studies of clonidine suggest the usefulness of this non-opiate agent in outpatient opiate detoxification, it has also become clear that clonidine is not without clinical risks and potential drawbacks and thus is not an ideal agent for treating withdrawal symptoms. Some patients are extremely sensitive to clonidine's hypotensive and sedative effects and cannot tolerate the doses needed to relieve withdrawal discomfort. This has led patients to discontinue their detoxification before completion and has seriously restricted the usefulness of clonidine in outpatient withdrawal to patients whose level of opiate dependence is below 30 mg/day of methadone. Additionally, the close monitoring of patients that is required because of potentially troublesome side effects during clonidine treatment can be inordinately time-consuming and inconvenient for both patient and physician. These factors tend to decrease the efficacy and acceptability of clonidine detoxification especially in an outpatient setting where side effects can interfere with the patient's daily functioning.

 

Our results with lofexidine suggest that this medication is comparable to clonidine in terms of antiwithdrawal efficacy but without the adverse sedative and hypotensive side effects that limit clonidine's usefulness. It appears, therefore, that lofexidine might be a more clinically useful and viable _treatment than clonidine in opiate detoxification, especially with ambulatory outpatients where safety and ability to maintain normal functioning are important concerns. Additionally, because lofexidine can be administered in higher doses than clonidine without unacceptable side effects, it might be possible to detoxify outpatients from higher levels of opiate dependence than has been the case with clonidine.

 

Non-opiate treatment with clonidine or lofexidine may be specifically indicated and preferable to detoxification using methadone in some cases. For example, these agents may be the treatment of choice for addicts with low levels of opiate dependence whose addiction might be increased by the use of methadone.

 

Clonidine or lofexidine may be especially useful in treating iatrogenic addiction to prescription opiates and treating addicted physicians or others having no prior involvement with illicit opiates where exposure to methadone or methadone treatment facilities might be undesirable or contraindicated. In general, clonidine and lofexidine may provide potentially useful and desirable treatment options whenever detoxification using methadone is inappropriate, unsuccessful, or simply unavailable.

 

Clonidine and lofexidine seem best suited for clinical use as transitional treatments between opiate dependence and naltrexone. Non-opiate medications with significant withdrawal-suppressing effects can provide symptomatic relief following rapid discontinuation of opiates without postponing the introduction of naltrexone at the earliest possible time to foster continued abstinence. The treatment sequence of clonidine or lofexidine followed as soon as possible by naltrexone induction is highly attractive to outpatients because it offers the opportunity for rapid detoxification with minimal discomfort and a clearly defined endpoint to the detoxification process.

 

The role of detoxification treatment alone as a therapeutic modality has long been overemphasized in addiction treatment. Attempts to detoxify large numbers of opiate addicts using clonidine or lofexidine and based on expectations that these patients will remain abstinent without some form of intensive aftercare treatment are highly unrealistic. In most cases, readdiction will rapidly ensue. Addicts are extremely vulnerable to relapse, particularly during the first week or two following cessation of opiate use. Although clonidine and lofexidine might be extremely useful in helping addicts achieve initial abstinence, a more comprehensive multimodality aftercare treatment approach including naltrexone and psychotherapy is usually necessary in enabling detoxified addicts to maintain an abstinent state (Resnick et al, 1981).

 

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

 

The authors' research studies cited in this paper were conducted in a treatment program at New York Medical College sponsored by the New York State Office of Alcoholism and Substance Abuse, Division of Substance Abuse Services. Research funds were provided by the National Institute on Drug Abuse and Merrell-Dow Pharmaceuticals, Inc.

 

REFERENCES

 

Gold MS, Redmond DE and Kleber HD: Clonidine blocks acute opiate-withdrawal symptoms. Lancet 1:599-601, 1978

Maner T, Mehra J, Johnson C et al: Comparative efficacy of two centrally acting imidazoline derivatives, clonidine and lofexidine. Clin Res 28:33A, 1980

Rawson RA, Washton AM, Resnick RB et al: Clonidine hydrochloride detoxification from methadone treatment: The value of naltrexone aftercare. In: Harris LS (ed) Problems of Drug Dependence, 1980. DHHS, Publication No. (ADM) 81-1058. NIDA Research Monograph No. 34, pp 101-108, 1981

Resnick RB, Schuyten-Resnick E and Washton AM: Narcotic antagonists in the treatment of opioid dependence: Review and commentary. Comp Psychiatry 20:116-125, 1979

Resnick RB, Washton AM, Stone-Washton N et al: Psychotherapy and naltrexone in

opioid dependence. In: Harris LS (ed) Problems of Drug Dependence, 1980.

Department of Health and Human Services, Publication No. (ADM) 81-1058. NIDA Research Monograph No. 34. Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office, pp 109-115, 1981

Shearman GT, Lal H and Ursillo RC: Effectiveness of lofexidine in blocking morphine-withdrawal signs in the rat. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 12:573-575, 1980

St. John LaCorte W, Jain AK, Ryan JR et al: Comparative efficacy and tolerability of lofexidine and clonidine given alone or concomitantly with hydrochlorathiazide in hypertensive outpatients. Clin Pharmacol Ther 29:259, 1981

Washton AM and Resnick RB: Clonidine for opiate detoxification: Outpatient clinical trials. Am J Psychiatry 137:1121-1122, 1980a

Washton AM and Resnick RB: Clonidine in opiate withdrawal: Review and appraisal of clinical findings. Pharmacotherapy 1(2):140-146, 1981

Washton AM and Resnick RB: Clonidine versus methadone for opiate detoxification. Lancet 2:1297, 1980b

Washton AM, Resnick RB and LaPlaca R: Clonidine hydrochloride: A nonopiate treatment for opiate withdrawal. Psychopharm Bull 2:50-52, 1980a

Washton AM, Resnick RB, Perzel Jr: and Garwood J: Lofexidine, a clonidine analogue effective in opiate withdrawal. Lancet 1:991-992, 1981

Washton AM, Resnick RB and Rawson RA: Clonidine for outpatient opiate detoxification. Lancet 1:1078-1079, 1980b