III. Analysis of the world situation

A. Africa
 

1. Major developments

288. The threats posed by drug trafficking through Africa have remained high on the agenda of the international community. The political commitment to the issue was illustrated at a debate held by the Security Council in December 2009 on the transnational threats posed by drug trafficking to peace and security, during which specific reference was made to West Africa as one of the areas most affected by drug trafficking. The Council returned to the issue on subsequent occasions and called upon local authorities to take action. In January 2010, a United Nations integrated office was established in Guinea-Bissau, to be headed by a personal representative of the Secretary-General.

289. The Board notes the steps taken by the African Union to implement its Plan of Action on Drug Control and Crime Prevention (2007-2012). At the fourth session of the African Union Conference of Ministers for Drug Control and Crime Prevention, held in Addis Ababa from 28 September to 2 October 2010, African ministers and experts responsible for drug control and crime prevention in the member States of the African Union agreed to fight the illicit cultivation and abuse of cannabis, to actively address the control of precursor chemicals and to develop adequate monitoring and regulatory systems for ensuring the availability of drugs for medical purposes while, at the same time, curbing the availability of drugs on unregulated markets.

290. For the past several years, West African countries have been used by drug traffickers as trans-shipment areas for large quantities of cocaine from South America destined for Europe and North America. The large-scale smuggling of cocaine through West Africa by criminal organizations appeared to peak in 2007; in 2008 and 2009, the number of seizures reported in the subregion fell, possibly because heightened international awareness of the threat posed by drug trafficking had made such trafficking via that subregion more difficult. Recently, however, the large-scale smuggling of cocaine via the subregion appears to have resumed, as indicated by several large seizures of cocaine effected in or linked to the subregion in 2010.

291. East Africa is the major conduit for smuggling heroin from South-West Asia into Africa, mainly through the major airports of Addis Ababa and Nairobi. From East Africa, heroin is smuggled into Europe and North America, either directly or indirectly through countries in West Africa (especially Côte d’Ivoire, Ghana and Nigeria) and, to a lesser extent, through countries in North Africa. The abuse of heroin has become a matter of concern in some East and Southern African countries, in particular Kenya, Mauritius, South Africa and Zambia.

292. The Board is concerned about the fact that in Africa there has been an increase in the abuse of almost all types of drugs over the past few years. Illicit cannabis production, trafficking and abuse continue to represent major challenges in Africa. Cannabis is the main drug of abuse in Africa. Cannabis that is illicitly produced in Africa is sold on the illicit markets in that region or smuggled into other regions, mainly Europe and North America. While cannabis herb is illicitly produced in many countries throughout Africa, the illicit production of cannabis resin is concentrated in North Africa, with Morocco being one of the world’s largest producers of that drug.

293. The use of Africa as a transit area for the traffic in precursor chemicals appears to have decreased in the past few years. While some years ago a number of large shipments of ephedrine and pseudoephedrine destined for African countries and ultimately Central and North America were identified and stopped, no further cases involving the attempted diversion of ephedrine and pseudoephedrine on a large scale through Africa were reported in 2009 or 2010. This may be attributable to the improved controls applied by some African countries over imports of those precursor chemicals and to the intensified screening by the authorities of exporting countries of shipments of precursor chemicals destined for Africa. However, Africa continues to be used by traffickers as an area for the diversion of precursor chemicals, as indicated by the continued diversion and smuggling of small shipments of ephedrine, pseudoephedrine and other precursor chemicals used in the illicit manufacture of drugs.

2. Regional cooperation

294. Within the framework of the African Union Plan of Action, the African subregional economic communities are playing a key role in the implementation of the Plan of Action at the subregional and national levels. A five-year programme to improve drug and crime control in North Africa and the Middle East was adopted by the Council of the League of Arab States in the second half of 2010. The programme addresses the main challenges faced by the subregion, including trafficking, organized crime and drug abuse. The programme, together with a political declaration and the terms of reference for a steering committee, was elaborated at a regional expert meeting held in Cairo in April 2010.

295. In West Africa, member States of the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) continue to demonstrate their support for the ECOWAS Political Declaration on the Prevention of Drug Abuse, Illicit Drug Trafficking and Organized Crime in West Africa, and many of them have taken action to implement the ECOWAS Regional Action Plan to Address the Growing Problem of Illicit Drug Trafficking, Organized Crime and Drug Abuse in West Africa (2008-2011), which was adopted at the ECOWAS Ministerial Conference on Drug Trafficking as a Security Threat to West Africa, held in Praia in October 2008. Progress has been made by the ECOWAS Commission in putting into effect its operational plan, adopted in Abuja in June 2009, for implementation of the Regional Action Plan, and in setting up a monitoring and evaluation mechanism. In December 2009, support and funds for implementation of the ECOWAS Regional Action Plan were pledged at a donor round table in Vienna organized by the ECOWAS Commission and UNODC including 15 million euros pledged by the European Commission.

296. In February 2010, the Dakar Initiative, an alliance of West African States, was established at a ministerial conference held in Dakar. The aim of the Dakar Initiative is to create a trans-Saharan network to counter the growing threat posed by cocaine trafficking through West African countries. The States currently participating in the Dakar Initiative are Cape Verde, the Gambia, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Mali, Mauritania and Senegal.

297. At a ministerial meeting of the West Africa Coast Initiative held in Freetown in February 2010, the Freetown Commitment was adopted by the four States currently participating in the Initiative (Côte d’Ivoire, Guinea-Bissau, Liberia and Sierra Leone). The Freetown Commitment supports implementation of the ECOWAS Regional Action Plan and is designed to strengthen the capacity of specialized drug law enforcement agencies and of national criminal justice systems. The West Africa Coast Initiative was launched in 2009 as a joint technical assistance programme for capacity-building at the national and subregional levels. It is expected that the Initiative will eventually be expanded to include all 15 ECOWAS member States and Mauritania.

298. In East Africa, a programme to promote the rule of law, health and human security in that subregion, covering Burundi, Comoros, Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya, Madagascar, Mauritius, Rwanda, Seychelles, Somalia, Uganda and the United Republic of Tanzania, was endorsed by a regional ministerial conference held in Nairobi in November 2009.

299. At the Twentieth Meeting of Heads of National Drug Law Enforcement Agencies, Africa, held in Nairobi in September 2010, participants examined current illicit drug trends in Africa and ways in which to strengthen the investigation of drug trafficking and related offences. The Meeting focused in particular on issues relating to drug trafficking and its corrupting influence on law enforcement agencies.

300. The Board notes that Governments of African countries have continued to establish legislative and administrative mechanisms to identify, trace, freeze, seize and confiscate the proceeds of drug trafficking with technical support by UNODC and the relevant subregional groups, notably the Eastern and Southern Africa Anti-Money Laundering Group and the Intergovernmental Action Group against Money Laundering in West Africa (GIABA). In January 2010, a GIABA workshop on the theme “Laundering the proceeds of illicit trafficking in narcotic drugs and psychotropic substances in West Africa” was held in Bissau to examine the techniques and methods used to launder the proceeds of drug-related crime in the subregion and to identify gaps in the national regulatory and institutional frameworks for countering money-laundering.

301. A high-level meeting of heads of drug law enforcement agencies of six West African countries (Cape Verde, the Gambia, Ghana, Guinea-Bissau, Sierra Leone and Togo), as well as Colombia, the Dominican Republic, Jamaica and Peru, was organized by UNODC in Bogota in January 2010 as part of its transatlantic intelligence exchange project. At the meeting, a total of 24 bilateral agreements were signed in order to facilitate joint investigations and the rapid exchange of operational information between law enforcement agencies with the aim of promoting intelligence-led investigations resulting in the interception of illicit drug shipments in South America, Central America and the Caribbean, West Africa and Europe.

302. Relevant international organizations have continued to provide joint technical assistance to West African States in support of the efforts of those States to combat drug trafficking through their territory. The Board notes the various initiatives implemented by UNODC in 2009 and 2010 to provide technical assistance to West Africa in the areas of drug control and fighting organized crime, notably the development of the UNODC programme for West Africa for the period 2010-2014. The Container Control Programme, which is implemented jointly by UNODC and the World Customs Organization in Africa, Central America, South America and Central Asia, is assisting Governments in establishing effective container controls to prevent the smuggling of drugs and contraband while facilitating legal trade. The programme is fully operational in Senegal (the port of Dakar) and in Ghana (the port of Tema) and will be extended to Benin, Cape Verde, Côte d’Ivoire, Mali and Togo in the near future. The Airport Communication Project, developed by UNODC in cooperation with INTERPOL and the World Customs Organization and with funding from the European Commission, enhances border controls and border management systems in international airports on drug trafficking routes in Brazil and countries in Africa and links them with the communication systems of INTERPOL and the World Customs Organization. Joint units to counter drug trafficking are to be set up under the project in Cape Verde, Côte d’Ivoire, Ghana, Guinea, Mali, Morocco, Nigeria, Senegal and Togo.

3. National legislation, policy and action

303. In 2009, the Government of Benin established three new bodies to monitor implementation of and enforce the drug control legislation adopted by that State in 1997: the inter-ministerial committee to combat the abuse of narcotic drugs and psychotropic substances (CILAS), the central office against drug trafficking (OCERTID) and the unit for combating money-laundering (attached to the economic and financial brigade). It also adopted a plan for combating drugs.

304. An inter-ministerial coordination committee on drug control was established in Ethiopia, comprising all ministries and key Government agencies responsible for the prevention of drug trafficking and drug abuse. The committee’s role is to oversee implementation of the national drug control master plan, provide policy advice on the updating of national drug control legislation, monitor compliance by Ethiopia with its obligations under the international drug control treaties and provide guidance on drug abuse prevention strategies for the general public and specific target groups.

305. Ghana has undertaken major restructuring of its national drug law enforcement agency, the Narcotics Control Board, and has also improved national inter-agency cooperation and collaboration with international partners. The number of interceptions and seizures of drug shipments has increased markedly as a result of Operation Westbridge, a passenger and cargo profiling operation carried out jointly with United Kingdom customs officials to improve drug interdiction at airports. The operation is to be extended to three airports in Nigeria.

306. In November 2009, the Government of the Libyan Arab Jamahiriya signed an agreement with UNODC to open a UNODC subregional office in Tripoli for the Maghreb countries. The new office, which is to be opened in December 2010, will focus on promoting cooperation between Algeria, the Libyan Arab Jamahiriya, Morocco and Tunisia in strengthening drug and crime control at their national borders.

307. The Government of Namibia is currently reviewing its national drug control master plan for the period 2003-2008. The Board encourages the Government to pass, as soon as possible, the Combating of the Abuse of Drugs Bill, which would ban trafficking in and the sale, possession and use of addictive substances and bring Namibia into full compliance with the requirements of the 1988 Convention, and the Drug Control Bill, which provides for up-to-date tools for the prosecution of drug related crime.

308. In March 2010, the South African Police Service held its second national chemical monitoring and precursor control conference. The objectives of the conference were to bring together representatives of the chemical industry, pharmaceutical companies and the South African Police Service to develop strategies for countering the diversion of precursor chemicals for use in the illicit manufacture of drugs and to acquire international expertise on current international trends and best practices in the dismantling of clandestine drug laboratories. In October 2010, the Government of South Africa held a national conference to review its national drug control master plan for the period 2006-2011 and adopt a master plan for the period to follow.

309. In the State of Zanzibar, United Republic of Tanzania, a draft law on illicit drugs was passed by the Zanzibar House of Representatives in 2009. The new law enhances the powers of police officers to conduct searches and seize narcotic drugs and provides for controlled delivery. It also establishes a commission to coordinate drug control efforts.

310. In 2009, the Government of Tunisia adopted new drug control legislation focusing on the storage, transportation, prescription and dispensation of psychotropic substances. In addition, buprenorphine, methylphenidate and oripavine were added to the list of narcotic drugs subject to State control.

311. The Parliament of Uganda is currently considering comprehensive draft national legislation on drug control that would introduce stiffer penalties for traffickers and provide for the establishment of a national body for coordinating drug control, the treatment and rehabilitation of drug abusers, regional and international cooperation, and the confiscation and forfeiture of assets.

312. At the end of November 2009, a comprehensive national plan for combating drugs and crime for the period 2009-2013 was drawn up and approved by the Government of Togo under the auspices of UNODC.
The Government of Togo has established a financial intelligence unit, managed by the Ministry of Security, to fight money-laundering.

313. With regard to efforts to counter money-laundering, the Government of Ethiopia passed legislation to combat that phenomenon in November 2009, while in Kenya, the Proceeds of Crime and Anti-Money-Laundering Act entered into force in December 2009. Despite the efforts undertaken by Ethiopia, the Financial Action Task Force on Money Laundering has identified Ethiopia as having significant anti-money-laundering deficiencies that pose a risk to the international financial system. The Government of Ethiopia may wish to seek technical assistance through UNODC in order to address those shortcomings.

4. Cultivation, production, manufacture and trafficking

Narcotic drugs

314. Cannabis continues to be the drug most widely trafficked and abused, and cannabis plant the illicit crop most widely cultivated, throughout Africa. The African region remains among the world’s largest producers of cannabis. Cannabis plants continue to be illicitly cultivated chiefly by small farmers and cannabis distributed by small groups or individuals.

315. Significant illicit production of cannabis resin continues to take place in countries of North Africa, notably Morocco. From 2003 to 2005 there was a marked decline in illicit cannabis plant cultivation in Morocco; that downward trend continued in subsequent years. The land used for cannabis plant cultivation was reported to have decreased from 134,000 ha in 2003 to 56,000 ha in 2009, while cannabis resin production decreased from 3,070 tons to 820 tons over the same period. The Board notes that while Moroccan authorities are actively engaged in efforts to interdict illicit drug shipments, data from European countries show that large quantities of Moroccan cannabis resin continue to be smuggled into Europe, the world’s largest market for cannabis resin. The Board commends the Government of Morocco for its endeavours and calls upon it to continue its efforts to achieve the total eradication of cannabis plant cultivation on its territory. At the same time, the Board calls upon Governments of European countries, which are among the main countries of destination of shipments of African cannabis to take all necessary measures to curb cannabis abuse in their countries. The Board encourages the Government of Morocco to continue to monitor the situation in its country by collecting and analysing pertinent statistical data on the extent of cannabis plant cultivation in Morocco and to share its experience with the international community. In that connection, the Board notes with regret that the survey on cannabis plant cultivation and cannabis production that was to be conducted by the Government of Morocco in cooperation with UNODC in 2010 was not carried out. The Board encourages the Government of Morocco and UNODC to take all steps necessary to ensure that the survey is conducted as soon as possible.

316. Cannabis herb production and trafficking are reported in practically all African countries. Cannabis herb is abused locally or smuggled within the region. Africa is also one of the main sources of the cannabis herb seized in Europe. The largest producers of cannabis herb in Africa are countries in West Africa (Ghana, Nigeria, Senegal and Togo), Central Africa (the Democratic Republic of the Congo and Equatorial Guinea), Southern Africa (Malawi, South Africa, Swaziland and Zambia) and East Africa (Comoros, Ethiopia, Kenya, Madagascar, Uganda and the United Republic of Tanzania).

317. In Nigeria, more than 900 ha of cannabis plants were destroyed by the National Drug Law Enforcement Agency during 2009. As a result, the farm-gate price of cannabis quadrupled in that country during the same year. The quantity of cannabis seized in Nigeria decreased sharply, from 334 tons in 2008 to 115 tons in 2009. In Ghana, irrigation farming has been introduced on sites where cannabis plants are illicitly cultivated, making it possible for the illicit crops to be grown throughout the year. Cannabis from Ghana is shipped primarily to Europe, in particular to the United Kingdom. A Government pilot scheme launched in Ghana in 2003 to provide cannabis farmers with the means to cultivate alternative cash crops was discontinued in 2008, as the scheme was not sustainable and some farmers continued to grow cannabis plants despite receiving incentives to cultivate alternative crops. South Africa ranks among the world’s largest producers of cannabis. While most of the cannabis illicitly produced in that country is abused locally, some is smuggled into countries in Europe, primarily the United Kingdom. In Egypt, cannabis plants continue to be illicitly cultivated in the north of the Sinai peninsula and in Upper Egypt, and about 75 ha of illicit crops were eradicated on the Sinai peninsula and 30 tons of cannabis seized during 2009.

318. While there is no evidence of the illicit cultivation of coca bush or the illicit manufacture of cocaine in Africa, for the past several years, West African countries have been used as transshipment areas for smuggling large quantities of cocaine from South America into Europe. As a result, two key trans-shipment areas have emerged in West Africa: one in Guinea and Guinea-Bissau in the north of the subregion; and the other in the Bight of Benin in the south. The preferred modus operandi of traffickers has been to transport the cocaine shipments using mother ships that offload the shipments onto smaller sea vessels near the West African coast, which then transport the shipments to Portugal and Spain. Large cocaine shipments are also sent in modified small aircraft from Brazil or Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of) to various destinations in West Africa. West African traffickers then traffic the cocaine onward to Europe, usually using commercial air courier services and often receiving a portion of the drug in payment for their services.

319. In 2008, a decrease in the number of reported seizures suggested that cocaine trafficking through West Africa was beginning to subside, possibly because drug trafficking as a whole had become more difficult as a result of heightened international awareness of the threat posed by such trafficking. By 2009, there were almost no seizures of cocaine trafficked by sea or on flights originating in West Africa. However, there were indications that cocaine continued to be smuggled through West Africa, such as the discovery in the Mali desert of the wreckage of a large cargo plane suspected of having carried a multi-ton cocaine shipment from the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela. By mid-2010, large-scale cocaine trafficking via West Africa appeared to have resumed. In May 2010, members of a trafficking network were arrested in Liberia on charges of having attempted to smuggle at least 4 tons of cocaine from South America into European countries and the United States via Liberia. In June 2010, a record seizure of 2.1 tons of cocaine was effected in the Gambia and 12 suspects were arrested as a result of a joint investigation by Gambian and British law enforcement services. In July 2010, a shipment of 450 kilograms (kg) of cocaine from Chile was intercepted in Nigeria. Those seizures indicate that multi-ton shipments of cocaine are arriving in West Africa and will continue to do so in the future, particularly since the factors that previously facilitated such flows of illicit drugs continue to prevail.

320. It appears that traffickers are adapting their modus operandi, for instance by using light aircraft to transport shipments of less than one ton of cocaine to coastal countries, notably Guinea-Bissau and Sierra Leone, and inland desert countries, such as Mali, which are closer to Europe and whose territory is more difficult to control. Drug traffickers constantly change their routes in response to successful law enforcement efforts; for instance, cocaine shipments are increasingly being routed from Argentina and Uruguay to Central and Southern Africa, while small-scale cocaine trafficking by air between North Africa and Europe — for example, from Morocco to Spain, from Algeria to France and from Tunisia to Italy — is increasing. In contrast, no major maritime seizures have been reported off the West African coast or by the Lisbon-based Maritime Analysis and Operations Centre – Narcotics (MAOC–N) since late 2009. There was also a significant decrease, between 2006 and 2009, in the number of arrests of cocaine couriers arriving at European airports on flights originating in West Africa.

321. A serious danger posed by cocaine is its enormous value relative to the size of local economies, a factor that allows traffickers to use bribery to protect their operations. For instance, in March 2010, 11 top-level officials of Gambian law enforcement agencies were arrested in connection with drug trafficking.

322. Some cocaine is also smuggled into South Africa, both via West Africa and directly out of South America using courier, air freight or express mail services. South Africa is becoming an important hub for cocaine shipments destined for illicit markets in Southern Africa and Europe. As regards East Africa, a series of cocaine seizures at the international airport of Nairobi in 2009 highlighted the continuing drug trafficking problem in Kenya. A growing number of cocaine seizures have been reported in North Africa, notably in Egypt and the Libyan Arab Jamahiriya.

323. The illicit cultivation of opium poppy continues to take place on the Sinai peninsula and in Upper Egypt. Such cultivation has also been reported in Algeria. The opium produced in Algeria and Egypt is abused locally. There is no illicit manufacture of heroin in Africa. Heroin from South-East and South-West Asia enters Africa through East African countries, from where it is trafficked first to West Africa and then to the United States and, to a lesser extent, countries in Europe. According to UNODC estimates, about 35 tons of heroin are smuggled into Africa each year, of which some 25 tons are used to supply Africa’s population of drug addicts, which is tentatively estimated at 1.2 million.

324. Within Africa, heroin flows to South Africa and countries in North Africa. In recent years, Ethiopia has become a significant transit area for heroin. Heroin is trafficked through Ethiopia and Kenya primarily because those countries have good air transport connections. From Kenya, heroin is transported to the Indian Ocean islands of Comoros, Madagascar, Mauritius and Seychelles. South Africa is used as a transit country for heroin shipments destined for illicit markets in Southern Africa and Europe and is also a country of destination. Heroin seizures have increased in North African countries, notably Egypt and the Libyan Arab Jamahiriya. Countries in West Africa have also emerged as important trans-shipment areas for heroin trafficking, as corroborated by a series of significant seizures of heroin (each of quantities greater than 5 kg) linked to Côte d’Ivoire, Nigeria and Ghana in 2009 and 2010. West African trafficking organizations are playing a key role in heroin trafficking throughout the world.

Psychotropic substances

325. In Africa, the illicit manufacture of psychotropic substances for local abuse takes place mainly in South Africa, but also in other Southern African countries and in East Africa. The illicitly manufactured drugs are predominantly methamphetamine, methcathinone and methaqualone (Mandrax). The precursor chemicals needed for the manufacture of methamphetamine, namely ephedrine and pseudoephedrine, are usually imported into South Africa legally but then diverted from domestic distribution channels. Legally imported cathine is also being used for the illicit manufacture of methamphetamine. Methaqualone originating in South Asia enters Africa through ports in East Africa and is smuggled via Mozambique into Southern Africa. Amphetamines appear to continue to be illicitly manufactured in Egypt (albeit to a lesser extent than previously) as evidenced by the discovery in Egypt in April 2010 of a laboratory suspected to have been used for the illicit manufacture of methamphetamine.

326. Amphetamines and other amphetamine-type stimulants continue to be smuggled into countries in West and Central Africa, to be sold on the illicit markets or smuggled into other countries. According to the World Drug Report 2010,27 prepared by UNODC, West and Central Africa accounted for almost 90 per cent of global seizures of unspecified amphetamines in 2008. In 2009, more than 700 kg of psychotropic substances were seized in Nigeria, a considerable increase compared with the 530 kg seized in 2008. Nigeria may be at risk of becoming a transit country for methamphetamine trafficking, as indicated by two seizures effected in Lagos, Nigeria, in April 2010: one of 36 kg of crystalline methamphetamine destined for Tokyo and the other of 26.5 kg of amphetamine destined for the United States via South Africa. In both cases, the substances were detected by the National Drug Law Enforcement Agency of Nigeria in air cargo shipments.

327. African countries continue to be vulnerable to the problems posed by illicitly manufactured or counterfeit pharmaceutical preparations containing narcotic drugs or psychotropic substances. In many African countries, it is possible to purchase pharmaceutical preparations without presenting a valid prescription. Many pharmaceutical preparations, some of them smuggled or imported without authorization, are sold on street markets. There is a need to increase the capacity of African countries to address the counterfeiting of medicines and the problems related to such medicines; lack of resources hampers the detection and investigation of such counterfeiting. The fact that counterfeit medicines can be easily obtained on African markets represents a serious risk to public health.

Precursor chemicals

328. In 2008 and 2009, there was a decrease in the number of reported cases involving suspicious or stopped shipments of precursor chemicals being smuggled through Africa. During the period 2006- 2007, a large number of suspicious shipments of ephedrine,    pseudoephedrine    and    preparations containing those substances were identified and

stopped and a total of more than 75 tons of ephedrine and pseudoephedrine were prevented from being diverted to or through the region. In 2008, however, the smuggling of those substances through Africa began to decrease markedly, although the diversion and smuggling of small shipments have continued. In April 2010, the Egyptian authorities dismantled an illicit drug manufacturing laboratory in Alexandria and seized various precursor chemicals (pseudoephedrine, hydrochloric acid, toluene and sulphuric acid), as well as tools and equipment, used in the illicit manufacture of methamphetamine. In April 2010, two businesswomen were arrested in Lusaka for smuggling 4 kg of ephedrine and 1 kg of cocaine. In South Africa, large quantities of ephedrine and pseudoephedrine continue to be diverted for use in the illicit manufacture of methamphetamine, which is abused mainly in the Western Cape province.
329. West Africa is at risk of being used by traffickers as a source of precursor chemicals that are used to illicitly manufacture drugs in the subregion or smuggled to other subregions, as indicated by the interception by the customs    authorities of
Côte d’Ivoire, in June 2010, of a shipment of 960 kg of acetone and 2,145 kg of methyl ethyl ketone, precursor chemicals used in the illicit manufacture of cocaine and other drugs. The traffickers had intended to transport acetone to Benin and the methyl ethyl ketone to Guinea without the required authorizations. Subsequent investigations carried out jointly with those two States confirmed that the addresses to which the shipments were to be sent were false. The Board urges the Governments of the African countries that have not yet done so to put in place, as a matter of priority, the legislative and institutional framework necessary to combat effectively the smuggling of precursors into or through their territories.
Substances not under international control
330. Khat continues to be cultivated in countries in East Africa, mainly Ethiopia and Kenya, and is used as a stimulant locally and in parts of the Arabian Peninsula. Despite the fact that the use of khat is associated with health risks, khat is prohibited only in some countries in the subregion, such as Eritrea, Madagascar, Rwanda and the United Republic of Tanzania, and in Canada, the United States and some European countries.
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Chapter III. Analysis of the world situation
331. The abuse of tramadol, an opioid analgesic that is not under international control, is of increasing concern in North African countries. In 2009, the Egyptian authorities seized 1.2 million tablets containing that substance which had been placed under national control in Egypt in 2008.
5. Abuse and treatment
332. Cannabis has remained the primary drug of abuse throughout Africa. The annual prevalence rate in Africa for cannabis abuse among the population aged 15-64 years fluctuates between 5 and 9.6 per cent, which is among the highest rates in the world and approximately double the global annual average. One matter of concern is that cannabis abuse in Africa appears to be increasing, the highest annual prevalence rates for such abuse being recorded in West and Central Africa (between 7.8 and 12.3 per cent), followed by Southern Africa, North Africa and East Africa. Zambia and Nigeria remain the African countries with highest prevalence of cannabis abuse (17.7 per cent and 13.8 per cent, respectively). According to the South African Community Epidemiology Network on Drug Use (SACENDU), in South Africa, the only country in Africa that systematically monitors drug abuse, 9 per cent of the population abuses cannabis and 26-58 per cent of patients attending specialist treatment centres reported cannabis as their primary or secondary drug of abuse.
333. Cocaine abuse appears to be rising in Africa, albeit from low levels. In Africa, the annual prevalence rate for cocaine abuse among the population aged 15-64 years is estimated at 0.2-0.5 per cent, which corresponds to the global average rate for such abuse. Within Africa, the rate of cocaine abuse is highest in countries in West and Central Africa — where the transit traffic in cocaine has fuelled an increase in local abuse — followed by countries in Southern Africa. SACENDU has noted an increase in the number of persons admitted for the treatment of cocaine abuse in South Africa.
334. There are estimated to be about 1.2 million heroin abusers in Africa. Within Africa, the subregion with the highest prevalence rate for opiate abuse is East Africa, followed by North Africa, Southern Africa, and West and Central Africa. The African countries with the highest annual prevalence rate for opiate abuse are Mauritius (1.9 per cent), Kenya (0.7 per cent) and
Egypt (0.4 per cent). According to the World Drug Report 2010, in South Africa, the prevalence rate for heroin abuse has reportedly remained stable over the past few years.28 The abuse of buprenorphine, including by injection, has been reported in Mauritius and Tunisia.
335. South Africa is possibly the world’s largest consumer of methaqualone. In that country, methaqualone is the preferred drug of abuse, and it is often abused in combination with cannabis. Another matter of serious concern is the abuse of methamphetamine (locally known as “tik”) and methcathinone in South Africa. Methamphetamine is illicitly manufactured in South Africa, to be sold on the illicit market. It is abused mainly in the Western Cape province, especially in Cape Town and, more recently, in Pretoria. According to police estimates, at least 30,000 addicts use more than a gram of methamphetamine every day. In Cape Town, methamphetamine is reported to be a primary or secondary substance of abuse among two thirds of drug abusers. Abuse of methamphetamine is believed to be spreading to other provinces of South Africa. In order to address the seriousness of the drug abuse problem, the provincial government of the Western Cape has adopted new substance abuse policies and in 2010 appointed a substance abuse coordinator at the Office of the Premier of the Western Cape.
336. In many African countries, national health-care systems, owing to lack of resources, are unable to meet medical needs adequately, particularly as regards facilities for the treatment and rehabilitation of drug-dependent persons. As a result of limited treatment options and in many cases no treatment programmes or facilities specifically for drug abusers, persons seeking assistance are often referred to the psychiatric wards of general hospitals, where only a small number of drug-dependent persons can be accommodated. The Board therefore welcomes the launch by UNODC and WHO of the project “Treating drug dependence and its health consequences” in Africa in 2009. The objective of the project is to improve the treatment available to drug-dependent persons and to facilitate their access to quality and affordable treatment services by providing support for the development and strengthening of such services and capacity-building for the entities that provide such
28 Ibid., p. 157.
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Report of the International Narcotics Control Board
services. To date, a total of 70 national trainers from 13 sub-Saharan countries have been trained under the project. The training programme is to be implemented at the national level between September 2010 and October 2011, and participating countries will be provided with technical support for policy development and service provision.
337. Capacity-building initiatives have been launched in Algeria, Egypt, the Libyan Arab Jamahiriya and Morocco to provide a comprehensive response to drug abuse and HIV/AIDS, including community outreach services for drug abusers, drug abuse prevention services and treatment services for drug abusers, including prison inmates.
338. In Morocco, the programme for opioid substitution therapy launched by the Government in 2009 became operational in June 2010 as part of a comprehensive package of services for the treatment of heroin dependence. Morocco is the first country in North Africa (and in the Arab world) to adopt legislation allowing the use of methadone in the treatment of drug dependence.
B. Americas
Central America and the Caribbean
1. Major developments
339. Because of its geographical location, at the crossroads of the main producing countries and the consumer markets, the Central American and Caribbean region continues to be used as a transit area for the large-scale smuggling of illicit drugs. The region’s long coastlines, porous borders and limited law enforcement and institutional capacity have facilitated trafficking activities, further compounding the impact of drug-related crime.
340. Despite the considerable efforts made by Governments in the region, the drug problem facing Central America and the Caribbean has been exacerbated by endemic corruption, widespread poverty and high unemployment. It is estimated that the street value of all drugs transiting through the Caribbean alone exceeds that of the legal economy. Proceeds of drug trafficking have been used to bribe public    officials,    increasing corruption within
government, law enforcement agencies and the judiciary and further undermining already weak institutions.
341. In some instances, the resources amassed by drug trafficking syndicates through illicit activities have enabled them to challenge the Government for effective control of parts of the national territory, jeopardizing the State’s security and political stability. The Board notes with concern the negative effect that corruption has had on drug control efforts in Central America and the Caribbean and urges the Governments of all countries in the region to take urgent measures to combat corruption in all its manifestations.
342. In Central America, drug-related violence has continued to plague El Salvador, Guatemala and Honduras, the countries of the so-called “Northern Triangle”, as national gangs are forming alliances with international criminal syndicates. According to the World Drug Report 2010,29 the “Northern Triangle” currently has the world’s highest murder rate and high rates of other forms of crime. It is reported that in Honduras alone about 60 per cent of all crimes are drug-related. In Panama, the murder rate more than doubled between 2006 and 2009, and the authorities attributed the increase to drug-related violence. In an effort to destabilize the Governments of countries in the area, drug syndicates have also targeted senior governmental officials; in Honduras, for example, the chief of the counter-narcotics police was murdered in December 2009.
343. In the Caribbean, Jamaica has also been affected by significant drug-related violence. In the summer of 2010, a police operation aimed at arresting the alleged head of a drug trafficking ring led to a stand-off between heavily armed gang members and police. The gravity of the ensuing violence, which caused over 70 deaths, prompted the Government of Jamaica to declare a state of emergency in Kingston and mobilize the largest contingent of armed forces in the history of the country. The suspect was eventually arrested by police and extradited to the United States to face drug trafficking charges.
344. The Board notes that natural disasters have also posed new challenges to the drug prevention efforts in Central America and the Caribbean. In January 2010, an earthquake of a magnitude of 7.0 struck Haiti, killing upwards of 200,000 people and causing
29 Ibid., p. 239.
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widespread devastation to the country’s fledgling infrastructure. Before the quake, Haiti was already known to be used as a major transit area for illicit drug shipments bound for North America owing to its long and poorly patrolled coastline, as well as the presence of several clandestine airstrips on its territory. The magnitude of the destruction that occurred and the resulting loss of capacity of the Haitian State have given rise to fears that the country may be increasingly used as a trans-shipment area for illicit drugs.
345. The adoption of strengthened drug law enforcement measures in many countries has had a displacement effect on trafficking routes, with drug traffickers seeking out the path of least resistance. The displacement effect, as manifested by the adoption of new trafficking routes, has led to a rise in demand for illicit drugs throughout the region and an increase in drug-related crime owing in particular to the growing prevalence of “payments in kind”, that is, the commission of crime in exchange for drugs or the exchange of drugs for different drugs.
346. Although the total amount of cocaine smuggled into North America has declined due to decreased demand, the proportion of that amount that is smuggled through Central America, particularly Guatemala and Honduras, has increased. Illicit drug shipments from South America are also reportedly passing through the Caribbean to West Africa on their way to Europe.
347. The primary means of drug trafficking remain maritime vessels, including go-fast boats, land transport and light aircraft landing on clandestine landing strips. Drug law enforcement agencies in Central America have also reported the renewed use by traffickers of submersible and semi-submersible vessels, which are rapidly increasing in capacity and technological sophistication. There have also been reports suggesting a resurgence in the use of drug couriers (sometimes referred to as “mules”). In addition, the exploitation of commercial aviation for smuggling is being facilitated by corrupt airport staff, including baggage handlers and customs and security agents.
2. Regional cooperation
348. As mentioned in the report of the Board for 2009,30 two ministerial conferences on drug
30 Report of the International Narcotics Control Board trafficking, transnational organized crime and terrorism as challenges for security and development were held in Central America and the Caribbean in 2009: one in Santo Domingo in February and the other in Managua in June. The political declarations and action plans adopted by the States participating in those conferences was evidence of the strong consensus that concerted action was required to address shared security threats and laid the groundwork for further cooperation at the regional and interregional levels.
349. In March 2010, UNODC launched phase I of the Santo Domingo Pact and Managua Mechanism, an interregional programme scheduled to run until February 2013. The project is aimed at promoting the establishment of information-gathering and policy-sharing initiatives and providing an integrated regional framework for the coordination of technical assistance activities aimed at combating drug trafficking and associated forms of transnational organized crime. The Santo Domingo Pact and Managua Mechanism also provide for the establishment of expertise and training focal points throughout the entire region. In its resolution 53/14, the Commission on Narcotic Drugs requested UNODC to assist the States of Central America and the Caribbean in obtaining the resources necessary for the effective implementation of the Santo Domingo Pact and Managua Mechanism. In order to facilitate the implementation of its related activities, UNODC has strengthened cooperation with States in the region through the establishment of the Regional Programme Office in Panama in 2009. The Board acknowledges the continuing role played by UNODC in assisting States in Central America and the Caribbean in the development and effective implementation of national and regional drug control strategies.
350. At the Nineteenth Meeting of Heads of National Drug Law Enforcement Agencies, Latin America and the Caribbean, held on Isla Margarita, Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela, from 28 September to 2 October 2009, participants discussed new and emerging challenges and effective means of addressing them, including the need for sustainable alternative development initiatives as an incentive for crop growers to abandon the cultivation of illicit crops, as well as various issues concerning drug trafficking trends and techniques. In particular, participants noted
for 2009 ..., paras. 349 and 354.
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a resurgence in the use of drug couriers, particularly couriers who concealed controlled drugs by ingesting them, and the increased use of light aircraft to smuggle drugs into the United States and countries in Europe. Participants also identified measures to enhance concerted action against drug trafficking and other forms of transnational crime, including the development of more efficient methods of data collection and structures for sharing information, an increase in capacity-building activities and cross-border cooperation and the wider and more effective use of civil asset forfeiture actions.
351. The Board welcomes the adoption of the Hemispheric Drug Strategy by the Inter-American Drug Abuse Control Commission (CICAD) at its forty-seventh regular session, in May 2010. The strategy is aimed at the grave threats posed by trafficking in and abuse of drugs to sustainable development, political and economic stability, good governance and the rule of law. It involves a multifaceted approach with five components: institutional strengthening; demand reduction; supply reduction; control measures, and international cooperation.
352. The Central American Integration System (SICA) continues to be one of the primary multilateral engines for regional integration, including for the development of coordinated responses to shared security threats posed by drug trafficking. In April 2010, SICA announced the investment of $953 million in a joint project with Mexico aimed at combating drug trafficking, organized crime and gangs in the region. The project is intended to assist States in counteracting the smuggling of drugs through Central America as well as the growing influence of drug gangs in the “Northern Triangle”.
353. The Thirty-fifth Regular Meeting of Heads of State and Government of SICA member States was held in Panama City on 29 and 30 June 2010. The meeting culminated in the adoption of the Panama Declaration, in which participants reiterated their commitment to taking meaningful steps to deal effectively with drug trafficking, gangs, illicit firearms, the smuggling of migrants and trafficking in human beings. Participants also pledged to make use of all resources at their disposal to prevent trafficking in and abuse of drugs in the region.
354. An extraordinary summit of Heads of State and Government of SICA member States was held in San Salvador on 20 July 2010. The meeting led to the adoption of an action plan calling for the continued implementation of the security strategy for Central America and Mexico adopted in 2007. In addition, the action plan calls for a review of the role of national police chiefs as set forth in the regional plan against organized crime of SICA member States, Mexico and States of the Caribbean. The Board welcomes this initiative and recognizes the importance of interregional cooperation in dealing decisively with the shared threats posed by illicit crop cultivation and illicit drug production and trafficking.
355. Under the auspices of the Caribbean Community (CARICOM), a four-day workshop was held in March 2010 to assist some CARICOM member States (Bahamas, Belize and Saint Vincent and the Grenadines) in the elaboration of their respective national drug control strategies. The subregional workshop was part of a technical assistance programme launched by the CARICOM Secretariat with the financial support of the European Union with the goal of building a critical mass of trained persons and developing good practices in addressing drug-related problems.
356. Building upon a pilot project previously implemented in South America, CICAD announced the expansion of the Seized and Forfeited Asset Management project (BIDAL) to Central America in 2010. The project aims to establish and strengthen national systems for the investigation, seizure, forfeiture, administration and disposal of assets derived from drug trafficking. The project further aims to provide a framework to fund national drug control programmes using confiscated assets derived from drug trafficking.
357. At a meeting held in Lima from 10 to 12 August 2009, the CICAD Group of Experts on Chemical Substances issued a series of recommendations to CICAD which included the following: to confer a mandate on the Group of Experts to review and improve the CICAD Model Regulations to Control Chemical Precursors and Chemical Substances, Machines and Materials; to enhance the use of electronic means of gathering and exchanging information; and to expand the array of CICAD training activities relative to the illicit manufacture of
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synthetic drugs through the elaboration of specific activities for prosecutors and judges. Several Governments expressed the need for simple and reliable methods of testing for ephedrine and pseudoephedrine. Others, including the Government of Costa Rica, reported having already made use of such tests in efforts to curb the diversion of precursor chemicals.
358. El Salvador and Guatemala have continued to pursue integrated bilateral responses to shared security threats, acting primarily through the binational commission established in 2000. In April 2010, the Minister of the Interior of Guatemala and the Minister of Justice and Public Security of El Salvador held a meeting with a view to establishing joint mechanisms for the exchange of operational information and the elaboration of shared strategies to address common threats. Building upon the consensus reached at that meeting, the ministers of foreign affairs of the two countries signed an agreement for the establishment of a binational police force, which would undertake joint border patrols to combat drug trafficking and organized crime.
3. National legislation, policy and action
359. In 2009, Belize adopted legislation prohibiting the importation of pseudoephedrine and restricting the importation of ephedrine. In 2010, El Salvador adopted two regulations for the control of ephedrine and pseudoephedrine: the first regulation prohibits pseudoephedrine and pseudoephedrine preparations, while the second prohibits ephedrine and ephedrine preparations, with the notable exception of ephedrine in its injectable pharmaceutical form.
360. In 2008, Honduras reported a sharp increase in the amount of precursor chemicals seized, which was attributed to the displacement effect, as stricter precursor controls had been adopted in other countries in Central America and the Caribbean. In response to that growing problem, early in 2009, the Government of Honduras adopted a ministerial regulation prohibiting the importation, exportation, use and distribution of ephedrine, pseudoephedrine and their salts. Since then, seizures of those precursor chemicals have declined sharply.
361. In El Salvador, the National Anti-drug Commission, composed of representatives of the ministries of public security, health, education and defence, announced the elaboration, in consultation with CICAD, of the national drug control strategy for the period 2010-2014. The strategy is aimed at reducing the supply of and demand for illicit drugs in the country by means of five central components: legislation; capacity-building; improved management; investigations; and the more efficient flow of information. In April 2010, the Government of El Salvador unveiled its National Drug and Crime Integrated Programme, developed with UNODC, envisaging investments of up to $15 million.
362. In 2009, Costa Rica adopted several new laws strengthening the national legal regime against organized crime and money-laundering. In 2009, over 64,000 drug-related arrests were made, an increase of more than 40 per cent over 2008. The Government also signed an agreement with UNODC on the establishment of a container intelligence programme. In September 2009, a Costa Rican delegation headed by the president of the Supreme Court signed at UNODC headquarters a plan of action addressing the needs of the country in the areas of drug control, fighting transnational organized crime and preventing terrorism. In July 2010, the Congress of Costa Rica authorized the entry of several United States warships and submarines into the territorial waters of Costa Rica between 1 July and 31 December 2010, in order to assist in drug control operations and humanitarian missions.
363. In March 2010, the President of Guatemala launched a three-year national integrated programme at a cost of $16 million, to strengthen Guatemala’s capacity in the areas of drug control, justice, police reform, firearms control, prison reform and countering trafficking in human beings. The programme is also aimed at combating corruption, which is recognized as being one of the greatest problems facing Guatemala.
364. The widespread corruption, impunity and recurring violence associated with drug trafficking in Central America have continued to adversely affect efforts in Guatemala to combat drug-related problems. According to the International Commission against Impunity in Guatemala (CICIG), established in cooperation with the United Nations in 2006 to support the Guatemalan justice system, about 97 per cent of the cases involving serious crime in the country, the perpetrators remain unpunished. In June 2010, CICIG expressed dissatisfaction with the measures taken by
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Guatemala to reform its justice system and to curb corruption.
365. In order to bolster its ability to deal effectively with the threats posed by large-scale drug trafficking, the Government of the Bahamas has adopted a capacity-building strategy focused on maximizing the participation of its law enforcement officials in national, regional and international training activities.
366. The Government of Panama announced the creation of a joint task force with the goal of implementing measures to increase the country’s control over its territorial waters in order to deter drug trafficking in its territory. The main component of the strategy is the establishment of monitoring stations on both coasts. Building upon its participation in the Container Control Programme, the Government of Panama and the UNODC Regional Programme Office in Panama have created an investigative and intelligence unit to monitor container shipping.
367. In April 2010, the Government of Honduras inaugurated a new naval base, built with the financial and logistic support of the United States Government, in the remote La Mosquitia region to facilitate the interception of light aircraft (“narcoavionetas”) smuggling cocaine from the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela through Honduras.
368. The Government of the Dominican Republic, in response to a marked increase in trafficking in the country, has taken decisive steps to increase its operational capacity to fight drug trafficking through the acquisition of new equipment such as aircraft, boats and radar systems. In June 2010, the Government of the Dominican Republic and UNODC finalized an agreement for the establishment of a regional centre of excellence on drug demand reduction and prison management. The centre is expected to become operational in early 2011.
369. The Board notes with concern that many States in Central America and the Caribbean have not yet enacted effective legislation to prevent the diversion of precursor chemicals subject to international control. In countries in which such legislation has been adopted, poor enforcement of the legislation owing to limited resources and/or a lack of political will has hindered its effectiveness. The Board urges all States to adopt comprehensive legislation on precursor chemicals as expeditiously as possible and to provide their respective law enforcement authorities with the resources needed to ensure its systematic implementation. The Board also encourages Governments to disseminate and work towards implementing its Guidelines for a Voluntary Code of Practice for the Chemical Industry.31
4. Cultivation, production, manufacture and trafficking
Narcotic drugs
370. Jamaica remains the largest illicit producer and exporter of cannabis in Central America and the Caribbean, accounting for approximately one third of cannabis produced in the Caribbean. An increased production of the drug has been noted in other countries, in particular Saint Vincent and the Grenadines and Dominica. Jamaica has also become a hub for the trafficking of cocaine, as trafficking routes have been displaced as a result of the strengthening of drug trafficking countermeasures in Latin America. Compounding the problem is the fact that Jamaican criminal groups are exploiting the elaborate networks originally established for trafficking cannabis to facilitate their attempts to traffic cocaine.
371. The Government of the Bahamas has reported that cannabis herb smuggled out of Jamaica and Haiti using go-fast boats and light aircraft continues to pose challenges to the country’s drug control efforts. Further compounding the problem is the fact that drug trafficking groups in the Bahamas have formed strategic alliances with established drug syndicates in producer and consumer countries.
372. The amount of cannabis seized in the Dominican Republic increased from 885 kg in 2008 to 1,400 kg in 2009, with almost 30 per cent of the seized cannabis originating in Haiti. The Dominican authorities also reported that in 2009 the amount of cocaine seized increased sharply to 3,400 kg, 64 per cent of which was accounted for by five large seizures. Although no official seizure data were provided for 2008, cannabis seizures in the Dominican Republic also rose significantly in 2009, to over 1,400 kg (compared with 884 kg in 2007). The Dominican authorities also
31 United Nations publication, Sales No. E.09.XI.17; accessible to competent national authorities through the secure portal of the Board
(www.incb.org/incb/cna.html).
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reported having seized about 24,000 cannabis plants, covering an estimated area of 3 ha.
373. In Costa Rica, law enforcement agencies have pursued a systematic cannabis crop eradication programme that has yielded significant results. In 2009, the Government reported the eradication of nearly 1.7 million cannabis plants. The total area used for illicit cannabis plant cultivation, which had nearly tripled from 2005 to 2007, when it reached 9.21 ha, decreased to 5.25 ha in 2008 as a result of increased land and aerial reconnaissance efforts. Cannabis seizures in Costa Rica also sharply declined, with seizures of 2,064 kg reported in 2009, compared with 4,809 kg in 2008. After a significant decline from 2007 to 2008, cocaine seizures in Costa Rica once again increased, totalling 18,590 kg in 2009. Costa Rica also reported seizures of “crack” cocaine totalling over 200,000 “doses” (“piedras”).
374. The quantity of cocaine seized in El Salvador sharply declined for the second consecutive year, from 4,074 kg in 2007 to 394 kg in 2009. According to official figures provided by the Salvadoran authorities, approximately 85 per cent of the cocaine seized was being smuggled by sea. Most of the seized drug had been bound for the United States, and a small proportion had been intended for illicit markets in El Salvador and countries in Europe. At approximately 440 kg, cannabis seizures in El Salvador remained stable in 2009 compared with the amount reported for 2008. The proportion of cannabis seized in the region that had originated in Guatemala was reported to be increasing significantly.
375. After having reported a marked decrease in cannabis seizures from 2007 to 2008, Cuba reported a significant increase in such seizures in 2009. The total amount of cannabis seized in 2009 was 3,139 kg, an increase of 83 per cent over 2008.
376. Large fluctuations in the quantity of cannabis seized were recorded in some Caribbean countries. Saint Lucia reported cannabis seizures in 2009 totalling 94,841 kg, a quantity approximately 145 times greater than the 655 kg seized in 2008. In contrast, cannabis seizures in Saint Vincent and the Grenadines dropped sharply from 47,596 kg in 2008 to 9,882 kg in 2009 despite reports suggesting that the illicit production of cannabis in the country was increasing.
Psychotropic substances
377. The spread of clandestine drug laboratories to Central America is thought to be linked to the increased control over precursor chemicals in Mexico and the United States, which has led to increased illicit manufacture of amphetamine-type stimulants in countries in Central America and the Caribbean. In 2008, for the first time, a clandestine laboratory manufacturing amphetamine-type stimulants was discovered in Guatemala.
378. In 2009, over 10,000 units of methamphetamine were seized in the Dominican Republic, while Guatemala reported seizures totalling more than 10,600    kg.    Fewer    than    500    tablets    of
methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA, commonly known as “ecstasy”) were reported to have been seized in each of the following countries; Bahamas, Costa Rica and Trinidad and Tobago.
Precursors
379. The Dominican Republic reported having seized over 1,332,000 tablets of pseudoephedrine in 2009. In the same year, Guatemala reported having seized more than 10,600 tablets of pseudoephedrine.
380. Costa Rica reported the seizure of 30 kg of norephedrine that had entered the country through Panama. The Costa Rican authorities were unable to ascertain the country of origin of the seized drug.
381. Following the adoption of legislation regulating ephedrine and pseudoephedrine in particular in Central America, the number of reported attempts to divert chemicals subject to international control has declined. At the same time, there is evidence suggesting that attempts to divert such chemicals have continued. The Central American subregion has also reportedly witnessed an increase in imports of chemicals that are not yet subject to international control but are suspected of being used in the illicit manufacture of drugs.
5. Abuse and treatment
382. The development and successful implementation of initiatives for the prevention and treatment of drug abuse in Central America and the Caribbean are largely restricted by the limited resources and institutional capacity of countries in the region. Given those constraints, Governments have had to strike a balance
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between competing developmental priorities and the need to adopt drug abuse prevention and treatment measures.
383. The Board recognizes that a central problem in the design of effective prevention and treatment programmes is that throughout Central America and the Caribbean there is a lack of capacity for the collection of drug-related data and a lack of centralized agencies mandated to assess that information. Although the amount and the quality of information regarding drug abuse patterns in the region have greatly improved, more research on consumption patterns and trends is needed to tailor treatment initiatives to meet local needs. The Board reiterates the importance of States in the region taking tangible steps to improve frameworks for the collection and analysis of drug-related data and encourages greater international cooperation to that end.
384. Several States in the region have adopted policies to develop and streamline national efforts to prevent and treat drug abuse. The Government of Saint Lucia has established the Substance Abuse Advisory Council Secretariat, a central authority coordinating national drug control policy. The Government of Saint Vincent and the Grenadines has established an advisory council on drug abuse prevention and is working with the Organization of American States to design and implement a demand reduction programme.
385. While drug abuse by injection has not accounted for a high proportion of new HIV infections in most countries in Central America and the Caribbean, Puerto Rico remains a notable exception. According to research data released in 2009, in Puerto Rico, drug injection accounted for 40 per cent of HIV infection cases among men and 27 per cent of cases among women.
386. Guatemala and Trinidad and Tobago noted a decrease in the age of first-time cannabis users. Guatemala also noted an increase in the overall availability of cocaine, including “crack” cocaine.
387. The Board welcomes the expansion of the global project “Partnership for action on comprehensive treatment: treating drug dependence and its health consequences” into Latin America and the Caribbean in 2009. The programme, funded by the Fund for International Development of the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries, in cooperation with the
Governments of Spain, Sweden and the United States, is aimed at fostering the development of policies for the effective treatment of drug addiction and for the minimization of associated social and health-care costs. Components of the strategy include advancing scientific understanding of drug addiction, increasing the effectiveness of treatment services by providing greater access and increasing staff training and developing strategies for countering discrimination against persons with drug addiction.
388. In cooperation with UNODC, CARICOM finalized its draft action plan for social development and crime prevention. The plan includes several measures aimed at preventing substance abuse among the general population and in schools, increasing the accessibility and quality of treatment, including in prison settings, addressing drug-related risk factors and facilitating the exchange of experiences and good practices in the Caribbean.
North America
1. Major developments
389. North America continues to play a major role in illicit drug supply and demand. Large-scale drug trafficking within the region is carried out by organized criminal groups, meeting the continuing high illicit demand for drugs. The Governments of the countries in North America are addressing the situation by combining policies to reduce illicit drug supply with policies to reduce illicit drug demand. Since 2009, law enforcement components, as well as drug abuse prevention and treatment components, in national strategies and programmes have been strengthened in order to address drug-related problems in an effective and comprehensive manner. Regional and bilateral cooperation targeting cross-border drug trafficking has intensified. The Board recognizes the efforts of the Governments of the countries in North America to develop more effective policies against drug trafficking and abuse.
390. The United States continues to be the main country of destination for illicit drug shipments. In the United States, in the case of all controlled drugs except cannabis and methamphetamine, most of the drugs have been illicitly manufactured outside of the country and then smuggled into the country. Drug trafficking
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organizations based in Mexico dominate the illicit supply of cocaine, heroin and methamphetamine at the wholesale level in the United States, in addition to playing a significant role in the illicit supply of cannabis. The number of drug-related deaths increased sharply in the United States. The Board is deeply concerned about the fact that the United States recorded for 2009 an increase in the abuse of all drugs except cocaine. From 2006 to 2009, the abuse of cocaine declined in the United States. One matter of particular concern to the Board is the increasing abuse of cannabis and prescription drugs containing controlled substances among that country’s youth. The Board welcomes the steps that have been taken by the Government of the United States to address the abuse of prescription drugs.
391. Mexico continues to be faced with significant challenges from drug trafficking organizations, which use it as a major transit and source country for illicit drugs. Vigorous law enforcement measures taken by the Government in 2009 and 2010 led to further disruptions of drug trafficking operations, the relocation of criminal activities and increased competition for shares in the illicit market. Once again, drug trafficking organizations responded by unleashing unprecedented violence, murdering a large number of persons, including law enforcement officials. Since 2006, more than 28,000 people have been killed in drug-related incidents in Mexico. The Government intends to strengthen capabilities to combat drug trafficking by introducing comprehensive institutional reforms and anti-corruption measures. The abuse of certain illicit drugs in Mexico has increased sharply.
392. Canada remains one of the world’s primary source countries for illicitly manufactured synthetic drugs,    particularly    MDMA (“ecstasy”)    and
methamphetamine, and a significant supplier of high-potency cannabis. The Board notes the decline in drug abuse in Canada, in particular among youth, reported by the Canadian Alcohol and Drug Use Monitoring Survey.
393. The involvement of organized criminal groups in drug trafficking in North America expanded further. Mexico-based    drug    trafficking    organizations
strengthened their position as the main wholesale suppliers of illicit drugs in the United States, in particular in the eastern part of the country, where the influence of Colombia-based drug trafficking organizations was diminishing. The Mexico-based organizations also increased their cooperation with criminal gangs based in the United States. In 2009, the mid-level and retail-level distribution of illicit drugs in the United States was largely controlled by about 20,000 street gangs. Alliances with the Mexico-based organizations enabled the street gangs to expand their illicit drug distribution operations at the expense of local independent drug dealers and small local criminal groups and to extend those operations into more rural and suburban areas. In Canada, some street gangs also started becoming involved in drug-related crime such as drug smuggling or illicit drug manufacturing, thereby enabling their activities to cover a larger geographical area.
394. The Board notes the result of the referendum in California, which rejected the “legalization” of cannabis use in that state. That result represents a recognition of the danger of cannabis abuse and an affirmation of the international drug control conventions. The Board also notes the statement of the Government of the United States, confirming the Board’s position that federal law supersedes state law with regard to the obligations contained in the international drug control conventions. The Board notes that the Government of the United States will continue to enforce federal law in that regard. The cultivation of cannabis plants and the use of cannabis for purposes other than scientific purposes are illegal according to the federal law in the United States. The Board welcomes the statement of the Government of the United States that it firmly opposes the legalization of cannabis.
395. The Board is deeply concerned about “medical” cannabis schemes, which so far have been introduced in 14 states in the United States. The control measures applied in those states to the cultivation of cannabis plants and the production, distribution and use of cannabis fall short of the control requirements of the 1961 Convention.
2. Regional cooperation
396. The Merida Initiative, a multi-year law enforcement and security cooperation programme involving Mexico, the United States and countries in Central America that was initiated in 2007, continues to be the focal point of cooperation at the regional level to counter drug trafficking and related forms of
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organized crime. The Government of the United States provided about US$ 1.3 billion in funding for 2008 and 2009 and proposed to allocate an additional US$ 450 million for Mexico (and US$ 100 million for Central America) for 2010. Notwithstanding the fact that only a small part of the initiative has been implemented so far, cooperation between Mexico and the United States has intensified within this framework. The emphasis of cooperation is shifting from the provision of equipment to improve law enforcement operations towards longer-term capacity-building and institutional development in support of the systemic reforms that are under way in Mexico. Activities carried out under the Merida Initiative have included the provision of helicopters and inspection equipment, the expansion of police and customs canine teams, and the participation of over 5,500 federal and state officials from Mexican law enforcement and judicial agencies in training programmes. In addition, the Royal Canadian Mounted Police provided instructors for training Mexican investigators. The goals and commitments of the initiative were reaffirmed by the Governments of Mexico and the United States at the meeting of the Merida Initiative High-level Consultative Group on Bilateral Cooperation against Transnational Organized Crime held in Mexico City in March 2010.
397. At its forty-seventh regular session, held in Washington D.C., in May 2010, CICAD adopted a new Hemispheric Drug Strategy, in which CICAD member States agreed to strengthen national drug control institutions and to apply comprehensive and evidence-based national drug control policies. According to the new strategy, CICAD member States will endeavour to reduce illicit drug demand through prevention, early intervention, treatment, rehabilitation and recovery services. In order to reduce the supply of illicit drugs, CICAD member States intend to improve the gathering and analysis of information on illicit drug supply, adopt law enforcement and alternative development measures and identify and monitor emerging trends. The new strategy also involves the provision of guidance on precursor control, the prevention of diversion of pharmaceutical preparations and the dismantling of drug trafficking organizations. In the new strategy, CICAD member States recognize the need for international cooperation, including compliance with the international drug control conventions. In addition to adopting the new strategy,
CICAD member States discussed their progress in the implementation of drug control policies within the Multilateral Evaluation Mechanism, strategies in the areas of treatment, prevention and recovery, trends with respect to selected illicit drugs and issues related to interdiction, forensic analysis and alternative development.
398. At the eighth Binational Drug Demand Reduction Policy Meeting, held in Washington D.C., in February 2010, Government officials and experts from Mexico and the United States discussed measures to reduce illicit drug demand and to intensify the prevention and treatment of drug abuse. The participants adopted the Declaration of Drug Demand Reduction Cooperation, expressing their Governments’ commitment to strengthening both national and bilateral efforts to enhance the prevention and treatment of drug abuse, to advance effective reintegration practices and community development and to continue sharing information and good practices.
399. In 2009, the law enforcement agencies of Mexico and the United States implemented new operating and communication procedures, which streamlined maritime patrol operations and the boarding and searching of vessels suspected of being involved in trafficking. Those procedures improved the coordination and effectiveness of such operations, contributed to a number of seizures of drugs and vessels and, in some cases, resulted in land routes being used instead of sea routes for drug trafficking operations.
400. In 2009, cooperation between Canada and the United States continued to take place in different forms, including joint law enforcement operations, information-sharing and bilateral collaboration using the Cross-Border Crime Forum, which brings together senior law enforcement and justice officials from Canada and the United States, and similar forums. Joint law enforcement activities resulted in significant seizures of drugs, including cannabis, cocaine, heroin, methamphetamine and MDMA (“ecstasy”). In 2009, the Governments of Canada and the United States signed the Framework Agreement on Integrated Cross-Border Maritime Law Enforcement Operations, which, after the passing of legislation for its implementation, will enable joint law enforcement teams to operate along the Canada-United States
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maritime border, thus facilitating maritime law enforcement operations.
3. National legislation, policy and action
401. Mexico continued to devote considerable effort to combating drug trafficking and organized crime. The main approaches followed were law enforcement and longer-term institutional reforms. Law enforcement action resulted in the arrest of a number of leaders of cartels in 2009 and 2010. Drug-related arrests, as well as extraditions to the United States, reached a record-high number in 2009 and continued at a similar pace in 2010. At the institutional level, Mexico made progress in implementing comprehensive judicial and public security reforms. A major goal of the judicial reform in Mexico is to make the transition from a system of written trials to an adversarial system with oral trials by 2016, making trials more expeditious and transparent. Although the process has slowed down in the country as a whole, several Mexican states have made progress towards the implementation of the adversarial system. In 2009, a number of leading universities incorporated those concepts into their curricula. Training programmes in trial advocacy were started for judges and prosecutors. Another element is the introduction of methods for alternative case resolution, such as mediation. Judicial reforms have been supported by the development of a national prosecutorial case management system. As part of the reform of the security sector, the new federal police was established, its investigative powers were strengthened and vetting and hiring standards increased. In 2009, the Government of Mexico enhanced the capacity of the customs service by recruiting additional staff and providing specialized training. Forensic laboratories have been modernized to make better use of scientific evidence in the prosecution of crimes. Advances have been made in intelligence-gathering, such as through the ongoing implementation of the information exchange platform Plataforma Mexico, which links law enforcement agencies, states and municipalities.
402. Corruption continues to impede efforts to counter drug trafficking in Mexico. Police and other law enforcement units at the state and municipal levels are exposed to threats and offered bribes from drug trafficking organizations. The Government of Mexico continued to combat corruption among law enforcement and government officials, including by screening and performing background checks on such officials and, when necessary, arranging for their dismissal or arrest.
403. The Government of the United States adopted the 2010 National Drug Control Strategy. The strategy, released in May 2010, was prepared after a broad consultation process involving stakeholders; it emphasizes a comprehensive evidence-based approach to addressing drug-related problems. The main elements of the strategy are community-based drug abuse prevention, early intervention, the integration of treatment for drug abuse into the mainstream healthcare system, innovations in criminal justice, the strengthening of law enforcement, international cooperation and improving information systems. With regard to drug abuse prevention, the strategy focuses on developing a community-based prevention system mainly for young people, information campaigns and increased collaboration involving different government levels and agencies. The strategy also establishes five-year goals to reduce drug abuse. Those goals include: reducing by 15 per cent, drug abuse among youth, the number of chronic drug users and drug-induced deaths; and reducing by 10 per cent the number of cases involving driving under the influence of drugs. The Board appreciates the efforts made by the Government aimed at ensuring that evidence-based measures are taken to address drug-related problems and at strengthening treatment and early intervention initiatives.
404. In the United States, disparities in the amounts of cocaine and “crack” required for the imposition of minimum sentences were reduced significantly by the Fair Sentencing Act, signed in August 2010. The Act also eliminated the minimum prison term for simple possession of “crack” and significantly increased monetary penalties for major drug trafficking.
405. The Government of the United States continued to implement the National Southwest Border Counternarcotics Strategy, adopted in 2009. The strategy requires law enforcement agencies of the United States to enhance operational capabilities and coordination to address cross-border drug trafficking. The United States intensified its law enforcement and intelligence operations in the areas near its border with Mexico, including by creating an inter-agency border law enforcement task force to identify, disrupt and dismantle criminal organizations engaged in drug
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trafficking and related crime, such as arms trafficking and bulk cash smuggling.
406. In the United States, a number of measures are being taken to deal with the problem of the abuse of prescription drugs containing controlled substances. The Government stated that reducing the abuse of prescription drugs was one of the areas of focus of the national drug control policy in 2010. Steps to address the problem include programmes for promoting the return and disposal of prescription drugs, informing the public of the risks of prescription drug abuse, educating physicians about prescribing opiate analgesics, addressing the practice of obtaining prescriptions for controlled substances from multiple physicians (“doctor shopping”), taking action against establishments for pain management that have inappropriate prescription practices and expanding prescription drug monitoring programmes. In 2010, 40 states had in place programmes for monitoring prescription drugs or had passed legislation to implement such programmes.
407. To tackle the problem of prescription drugs being sold through illegal Internet pharmacies the Government of the United States has introduced stronger control, law enforcement and legislative measures. One of those measures, the Ryan Haight Online Pharmacy Consumer Protection Act of 2008, prohibits Internet pharmacies from, inter alia, providing prescription drugs to individuals who have not had at least one face-to-face evaluation by a prescribing medical practitioner. The Food and Drug Administration issued in November 2009 warning letters to 22 operators of websites identified as having illegally sold unapproved or misbranded drugs to persons in the United States. These above-mentioned measures have contributed to reducing the number of illegal Internet pharmacies and will be further implemented by the Government.
408. In addition to the existing federal regulations in the United States, restrictions on the retail sale of pseudoephedrine products had been adopted in 45 states by the end of 2009, making pseudoephedrine a controlled drug at the state level, imposing point-of-sale restrictions or introducing laws for tracking pseudoephedrine shipments. In Oregon, which in 2006 became the first state to introduce a law that reclassified pseudoephedrine as a prescription drug, pseudoephedrine “smurfing”32 has been virtually eliminated and a sharp drop in the number of seized methamphetamine laboratories has been observed. In the light of that experience, Mississippi enacted a similar law in 2010 and other states are also considering such legislative measures.
409. The Government of Canada continued to implement its National Anti-Drug Strategy, aimed at preventing and reducing drug abuse, enhancing the treatment of drug abusers and strengthening drug law enforcement. A 2010 report evaluating the strategy found that it had been implemented largely as intended, though some components related to the prevention and treatment of drug abuse had experienced delays. As Canada is a major source of illicitly manufactured synthetic drugs, the Government has decided to make countering the illicit manufacture of and trafficking in such drugs a national priority. In 2009, the Synthetic Drug Initiative, the first Canadian drug control strategy to focus on a single class of drugs, was launched as a component of the National Anti-Drug Strategy. The initiative utilizes a combination of law enforcement, deterrence and prevention measures targeting the illicit manufacture of synthetic drugs. The initiative is also aimed at preventing the diversion of precursor chemicals from licit distribution channels in Canada.
410. In May 2010, the Government of Canada introduced in the Senate the Penalties for Organized Drug Crime Act. The bill provides a mandatory sentence of a minimum of one or two years in jail for a number of serious drug-related offences, including illicit drug production, trafficking, possession for the purposes of trafficking, importing and exporting, and possession for the purposes of exporting. The bill also provides for additional penalties when such offences are committed for the purposes of organized crime or when they involve selling drugs to young people.
32 “Smurfing” is a method used by some traffickers to acquire large quantities of a precursor chemical such as
pseudoephedrine. Individuals purchase the chemical from multiple retail locations in quantities at or below the legal limit. Traffickers often use several associates in “smurfing” operations to increase the speed with which the chemical can be acquired.
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4. Cultivation, production, manufacture and trafficking
Narcotic drugs
411. In the United States, cannabis continues to be illicitly produced on a large scale for the illicit market in that country. While there are no reliable estimates of the amount of illicitly produced cannabis, law enforcement data indicate a continuing high level of illicit cultivation of cannabis plants and illicit production of cannabis. In 2009, more than 2,000 tons of cannabis were seized in the United States, exceeding by more than one third the total amount seized in 2008. The number of eradicated cannabis plants increased by 30 per cent to almost 10.4 million, largely as a result of the increased eradication of cannabis plants grown outdoors. Drug trafficking organizations from outside the United States continue to establish and expand sites for the illicit cultivation of cannabis plants within the United States borders, in order to reduce the risks and costs of smuggling cannabis. Criminal groups, in particular drug trafficking organizations based in Mexico, obtain significant quantities of cannabis from sites used for the illicit cultivation of cannabis plants on public land. Such growing sites on public land pose significant public safety and environmental hazards. The illicit cultivation of cannabis plants indoors by individuals and criminal groups is expanding partly in reaction to intensified efforts to eradicate cannabis plants illicitly cultivated outdoors. Those criminal groups include Canada-based drug trafficking organizations with indoor growing sites mainly in the north-western part of the United States. Indoor cultivation sites usually offer increased control over growing conditions and yield cannabis of a higher potency, which could be sold at a higher price.
412. The Board is concerned that the “medical” cannabis programmes in some states of the United States and the insufficient control measures applied in those programmes have contributed to illicit cultivation of cannabis plants and trafficking in cannabis.
413. The Government of Mexico estimates that the illicit production of cannabis declined slightly in 2009, to about 19,900 tons, most of which was destined for the United States. More than 2,100 tons of cannabis herb were seized in Mexico in 2009, an increase of about 27 per cent. North America continued to be the region in which the most cannabis herb is seized. The total area of illicitly cultivated cannabis plants eradicated continued to decline in 2009, to 16,547 ha (a decrease of 11 per cent), partly owing to law enforcement units being increasingly involved with public security tasks. According to reports from the United States, the amount of cannabis seized along that country’s border with Mexico increased by 19 per cent in 2009, indicating a sustained high flow of cannabis from Mexico.
414. Cannabis remains the main illicit drug produced in Canada. In 2009, Canadian law enforcement officers seized more than 34 tons of cannabis herb, a slight decrease over the figure for 2008. The majority of the illicitly produced cannabis in Canada has been cultivated indoors, which means that its potency is high. In 2008, the average THC level of cannabis seized in Canada was 11 per cent. Organized criminal groups continue to dominate illicit cannabis production in Canada. The Canadian market for cannabis is supplied almost entirely by cannabis illicitly-produced in Canada. A significant amount of the cannabis illicitly produced in Canada continues to be destined for the illicit market in the United States. Some organized criminal groups smuggle Canadian cannabis into the United States in exchange for cocaine and other contraband, such as firearms and tobacco. The amount of cannabis seized along the border between Canada and the United States increased slightly to about 3.4 tons in 2009.
415. Cocaine trafficking in North America continued to decline as a result of various factors, including less cocaine abuse, decreased illicit cocaine manufacture in Colombia and sustained pressure on drug trafficking organizations in Mexico. Consequently, less cocaine was seized in Mexico (21.6 tons) and the United States (108.3 tons) (including at its border with Mexico (20.5 tons)) in 2009 than in previous years. Cocaine shortages persisted in many areas of the United States in 2009, as evidenced by higher prices and lower purity levels. Criminal groups are smuggling cocaine into Canada, mainly through Mexico and the United States, to be sold on the illicit market in Canada or shipped overseas. Thus, Canada is increasingly being used as a transit country for cocaine. Disruptions in cocaine trafficking in the region resulted in the decreased availability and increased prices of cocaine in major urban centres across Canada.
416. Most of the heroin in the United States originates in Colombia or Mexico. Law enforcement reports
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indicate that Mexican drug trafficking organizations have gained a more significant share of the heroin market in the United States at the expense of South American criminal groups. In addition to South American heroin being trafficked and distributed in greater quantities, there are some indications that “white heroin” (heroin with a higher purity level) is being illicitly manufactured in Mexico and that a mixture of both Mexican and South American heroin is being distributed. Mexico is the world’s third largest source of illicitly produced opium. The total area of illicitly cultivated opium poppy eradicated in Mexico increased from 13,095 ha in 2008 to 14,753 ha in 2009. The Government of Mexico also reported an increase in the illicit production of opium. Increased illicit heroin manufacture in Mexico and the increased involvement of Mexican criminal groups in trafficking in drugs from South America resulted in an increased amount of heroin being seized along the south-west border of the United States. Heroin continues to be widely available in the United States. In some areas of the United States, the availability of heroin is increasing, as evidenced by high purity levels and low prices.
417. The heroin on the illicit market in Canada continues to be predominately from South-West Asia. Law enforcement agencies in Canada seized a total of 213 kg of heroin in 2009. Most of the seized heroin had been smuggled into the country by post or by air or sea.
418. In the United States, the illegal distribution of prescription drugs containing internationally controlled substances continues to increase. The prescription drugs involved are primarily opioid pain relievers containing codeine, fentanyl, hydromorphone, morphine, oxycodone, dextropropoxyphene, methadone or hydrocodone. From 2007 to 2009, the percentage of state and local law enforcement agencies reporting that problems related to prescription drugs posed the greatest drug-related threat to their areas more than doubled. Establishments involved in pain management have become a major source of the controlled prescription drugs used by drug abusers. According to the Government of the United States, so-called “pain clinics” are in some states operating outside the scope of acceptable medical practices and dispensing or prescribing large quantities of prescription opioids to persons with no legitimate need for such drugs. Those establishments have been identified as a significant source of the prescription opioids distributed in numerous states that have programmes for monitoring the distribution of prescription drugs. Obtaining prescription drugs by “doctor shopping” has decreased in states that have implemented such monitoring programmes but has continued in states without such programmes.
Psychotropic substances
419. In spite of regulatory measures taken by Governments,    the    illicit    manufacture    of
methamphetamine has increased in North American countries. In Mexico, the illicit manufacture of methamphetamine was disrupted in 2007 and 2008 as a result of the ban on precursors of methamphetamine that had been introduced by the Government. Then, however, drug trafficking organizations adapted to the new regulations. As a result, the illicit manufacture of methamphetamine in Mexico, the main supplier of the methamphetamine abused in the United States, resurged in 2009. That development was reflected in the sharp increase in the total amount of methamphetamine seized in Mexico (from about 300 kg in 2008 to more than 6 tons in 2009) and in the number of clandestine methamphetamine laboratories uncovered in the country (21 laboratories in 2008 compared with 191 in 2009).
420. The increasing manufacture of methamphetamine in Mexico resulted in a greater flow of methamphetamine to the United States, as reflected in an increase in the total amount of methamphetamine seized along the south-west border of the United States (from 2.2 tons in 2008 to about 3.5 tons in 2009). In the United States sustained illicit manufacture of methamphetamine also contributed to the increased availability of the substance on the illicit market. In 2009, the total amount of methamphetamine seized in the United States increased slightly to about 6.6 tons, while the number of clandestine laboratories uncovered increased to 4,571 (compared with 3,931 in 2008). The increase in the illicit manufacture of methamphetamine in the United States was primarily accounted for by laboratories manufacturing the substance on a small scale in several states.
421. Methamphetamine illicitly manufactured in Canada accounts for a significant share of the methamphetamine found on illicit markets in other countries. The illicit manufacture of methamphetamine
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in Canada has risen to meet the illicit demand for the substance. In Canada, methamphetamine is illicitly manufactured mainly by organized criminal groups on a large scale in clandestine laboratories. The number of clandestine methamphetamine laboratories uncovered in Canada rose to 23 in 2009, more than doubling the figure for 2008. Almost all of the methamphetamine found on the illicit market in Canada has been illicitly manufactured in that country. While the smuggling of methamphetamine from Canada into the United States remained limited, a significant amount of methamphetamine was smuggled into countries in East and South-East Asia, especially Japan, and in Oceania, especially Australia. In recent years, methamphetamine has increasingly been found in tablets sold as MDMA (“ecstasy”) on the illicit market in Canada.
422. Canada continues to be a major source of MDMA (“ecstasy”) found on the illicit markets of countries in North America and other regions. Organized criminal groups in Canada are illicitly manufacturing and distributing methamphetamine on a large scale. MDMA has continued to be widely available in Canada. Large quantities of MDMA illicitly manufactured in Canada were smuggled mainly into the United States and countries in East and South-East Asia and in Oceania. In the United States, as the illicit supply of MDMA increased, MDMA accounted for a larger share of the illicit drugs sold by street gangs. In “ecstasy” tablets originating in Canada the percentage of MDMA has decreased and the percentage of chemicals used as adulterants has increased. That development may have significant health implications for “ecstasy” abusers.
Precursors
423. In Mexico, after a ban was placed on pseudoephedrine and ephedrine, prohibiting their import and use, drug trafficking organizations developed various ways to circumvent the ban. They used new smuggling routes such as through Central America and South America, they smuggled precursors in tablet form rather than in bulk, they shifted their illicit manufacturing operations to other countries and they used alternative manufacturing methods that required chemicals for which controls were less strict or non-existent. One of those methods for manufacturing methamphetamine without using ephedrine is the P-2-P method, which has become significantly more important. Phenylacetic acid, a chemical used to produce P-2-P, was found in clandestine methamphetamine laboratories in Mexico. Operation PILA, which was initiated in 2009, and coordinated by the Board, focused on monitoring trade in ephedrine and pseudoephedrine, including pharmaceutical preparations containing one of those chemicals. Analysis of the relevant data and seizures revealed that Mexico was the destination of many suspect ephedrine and pseudoephedrine shipments. 33
424. In the United States, the increase in illicit methamphetamine manufacture in 2008 and 2009 was fuelled primarily by individuals and criminal groups that organized “smurfing” operations to acquire large amounts of the precursor chemical pseudoephedrine.
425. Canada continues to be used by traffickers as both a country of destination and a transit country for chemicals used in the illicit manufacture of synthetic drugs, particularly methamphetamine and MDMA (“ecstasy”).
Substances not under international control
426. Khat continues to be smuggled into Canada, primarily by courier and air cargo. The abuse of khat is most common among East African communities in Canada. Most of the khat found in Canada comes from Ethiopia or Kenya. In 2009, the total amount of khat seized by law enforcement agencies throughout Canada decreased compared with the previous year, to about 19 tons.
427. According to Canadian law enforcement reports, there has been an increase in the demand for unregulated chemicals such as methylamine.
5. Abuse and treatment
428. In the United States, an estimated 38 million persons (or 15.1 per cent of the population aged 12 or older) had used illicit drugs in 2009. That represents an increase of 2.5 million persons (or 0.9 per cent of the population aged 12 or older) over the figure for 2008 and a reversal of the declining trend in illicit drug use in the preceding years. About 21.8 million persons (or 8.7 per cent of the population aged 12 or older) were
33 Precursors and Chemicals Frequently Used in the Illicit
Manufacture of Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances: Report of the International Narcotics Control Board for 2010 ...
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“current users” (persons who reported having used illicit drugs in the past month).
429. In the United States, one matter of concern is the increasing abuse among youth of cannabis and prescription drugs containing narcotic drugs. According to the 2009 survey “Monitoring the Future 2009”, an annual survey on drug abuse among students aged 13-18 in the United States, annual prevalence of cannabis abuse increased for the first time after declining for seven consecutive years: from 21.5 per cent in 2008 to 22.9 per cent in 2009. That turnaround was accompanied by a decline in students’ perceptions of the risks of cannabis abuse. The abuse of OxyContin (annual prevalence: 3.9 per cent), a product containing oxycodone, and Vicodin (annual prevalence: 6.5 per cent), 34 a product containing hydrocodone, reached or remained at record-high levels in 2009. The abuse of other illicit drugs either declined (as in the case of cocaine, inhalants and hallucinogens) or remained fairly stable (as in the case of heroin, amphetamines and tranquillizers).
430. In the United States, the number of drug-related deaths35 doubled from 1999 to 2007. According to the latest statistics available, there were a total of 38,371 drug-related deaths in 2007. In a number of states, the number of drug-related deaths has surpassed the number of deaths resulting from motor vehicle accidents.
431. In the United States, cannabis remains the most commonly abused drug. In 2009, 28.5 million persons (or 11.3 per cent of the population aged 12 or above) abused cannabis. That represents an increase of 2.7 million persons (or 1 per cent of the population aged 12 or above) compared with the figure for 2008.
432. In 2009, 4.8 million persons abused some form of cocaine in the United States (compared with 5.3 million in 2008). Past-year prevalence of the abuse of cocaine (including “crack”) among the United States population aged 12 and older was 1.9 per cent.
34 The prevalence data for those preparations are queried in the “Monitoring the Future” questionnaire; therefore, trade names are used in this particular case.
35 Drug-related deaths include deaths resulting from drug-induced diseases, accidental poisoning and intentional self-poisoning (suicide) but exclude accidents, homicides and other causes indirectly related to drug use.
433. The increased availability of heroin in the United States has led to increased heroin abuse and, consequently, an increase in the number of heroin-related overdoses and deaths resulting from overdose. In 2009, the number of heroin abusers increased by about one third, to over 600,000 (or 0.2 per cent of the population aged 12 and older). Abusers of prescription opioids reportedly switch to heroin because they build tolerance to prescription opioids and because heroin is cheaper and more easily available than prescription opioids.
434. The abuse of methamphetamine increased in the United States: in 2009, 0.5 per cent of the population aged 12 and older were past-year abusers, compared with 0.3 per cent in 2008.
435. According to the assessment of the Government of the United States, the abuse of prescription drugs is the fastest-growing drug problem in the country. In 2009, the abuse of prescription drugs — measured as non-medical use of pain relievers, tranquillizers, stimulants or sedatives — was reported by 16 million persons (or 6.4 per cent of the population aged 12 and above), compared with 15.2 million (or 6.1 per cent of the population) in 2008. About 7 million persons were “current users”. Pain relievers were the most commonly abused prescription drugs: 12.4 million persons reported having abused pain relievers in 2009 (compared with 11.9 million in 2008). More and more opiate-related overdoses are attributable to prescription analgesics. The number of unintentional deaths by overdose resulting from the abuse of prescription opioids has increased sharply. The number of drug-related emergency room visits involving narcotic analgesics more than doubled from 2004 to 2008, mainly as a result of incidents involving the abuse of hydrocodone, methadone and oxycodone. Prescription drugs continued to be one of the most abused categories of drugs — second only to cannabis.
436. According to the latest Canadian Alcohol and Drug Use Monitoring Survey, the abuse of most drugs among members of the population aged 15 and older declined in 2009, which is an encouraging development. The prevalence of past-year cannabis abuse continued to decrease, reaching 10.6 per cent in 2009. Annual prevalence of abuse of cocaine (1.2 per cent), methamphetamine (0.4 per cent) and MDMA (“ecstasy”) (0.9 per cent) also decreased compared with 2008. The rate of drug abuse among
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males was almost double the rate among females. The abuse of prescription drugs (opioid pain relievers, stimulants, and sedatives and tranquillizers) in 2009 remained at the level reported in 2008: 0.6 per cent of respondents indicated that they had used prescription drugs in the past year “to get high”.
437. In Canada, drug abuse among youth (persons 15-24 years old) declined in 2009. The Canadian Alcohol and Drug Use Monitoring Survey showed declining past-year abuse of cannabis (from 32.7 per cent in 2008 to 26.3 per cent in 2009), cocaine (from 5.9 per cent in 2008 to 3 per cent in 2009), hallucinogens (from 10.2 per cent in 2008 to 4.4 per cent in 2009), MDMA (“ecstasy”) (from 6.5 per cent in 2008 to 3.6 per cent in 2009) and prescription drugs (from 2.1 per cent in 2008 to 1.7 per cent in 2009). Cannabis abuse declined by almost 30 per cent during the five-year period 2004- 2009. The abuse of one type of prescription drugs, pain relievers, increased. Despite the overall positive development, the rate of drug abuse among youth remained 4-5 times higher than the rate among adults (persons aged 25 and older).
438. In Mexico, a national survey showed that from 2002 to 2008 there was a significant increase in the abuse of drugs, in particular cocaine. According to Government estimates, the abuse of cocaine, particularly “crack”, continued to increase sharply in 2009. Most drug-related deaths were attributed to the abuse of cocaine (449 deaths in 2009, an increase of 90 per cent over 2008). There was also a sharp increase in the abuse of heroin, methamphetamine, hallucinogens, solvents and inhalants. The most commonly abused drug continued to be cannabis, followed by cocaine. One reason for the increased abuse of drugs is that drug trafficking has resulted in drugs being more widely available in the country.
439. In the United States, about 1.2 million persons were admitted for treatment of drug abuse in 2008, 9 per cent more than in 2007. For most of those persons the primary drug of abuse was cannabis (346,000 persons in 2008, an increase of 20 per cent), followed by heroin (281,000), cocaine (230,000), amphetamines (127,000) and other opiates (121,000). The growing problem of abuse of prescription drugs is also reflected in data on persons admitted to treatment for drug abuse. Among the persons admitted for treatment and for whom medication-assisted opioid therapy was planned, the number of persons treated for the abuse of pain relievers more than tripled from 1998 to 2008, reaching 26.5 per cent. According to the Government, 1,132 treatment facilities in the United States offered opioid treatment programmes in 2008, mostly maintenance programmes using methadone and/or buprenorphine. It is estimated that there is a significant treatment gap in the United States: in other words, the vast majority of drug addicts do not receive special treatment. According to the Government, that is partly attributable to the fact that there is no integration of treatment for drug addiction with the rest of the health-care system. As part of its drug control strategy, the Government therefore intends to better integrate treatment into health care, making treatment services more accessible and improving their quality. The Government also aims to support recovery from drug addiction through services involving, for example, transitional housing, mutual help groups, counselling and employment restoration.
440. In the United States, the number of drug treatment courts has continued to increase. At the end of 2009, 2,459 drug treatment courts were operating throughout the country. More than half of them were for adults. In addition, there was a significant number of specialized drug treatment courts, including juvenile, family, tribal, campus or veterans’ drug treatment courts. Evaluations conducted by the Government, as well as by researchers, have shown that, compared with traditional courts that lead to traditional forms of punishment such as incarceration, drug treatment courts are more successful in reducing recidivism among drug-abusing offenders and more cost-effective in the long run.
441. The Government of Canada is enhancing the national system for the treatment of drug abuse within the framework of the National Anti-Drug Strategy. The Drug Treatment Funding Program was launched to support provinces and territories in strengthening their systems for the treatment of drug abuse. Targeted treatment for imprisoned drug abusers is offered in the correctional system, significantly reducing recidivism.
442. The action programme for the prevention and treatment of addictions was launched by the Government of Mexico to strengthen the infrastructure for providing treatment services for drug addicts. The community-based network of centres offering basic treatment and prevention services for drug abusers was
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expanded further. In 2009, most persons received treatment for abuse of cannabis, followed by cocaine and inhalants. In 2009, about 39,000 persons began receiving treatment for drug abuse in specialized centres; that represented only a small proportion of the drug addicts in the country. A project to train and accredit providers of treatment for drug abuse was started in 2009, with a view to improving the functioning and running of treatment facilities.
South America
1. Major developments
443. Trends related to the illicit manufacture of, trafficking in and abuse of drugs have changed in South America over the past decade. Criminal organizations that have traditionally been involved in drug trafficking at the international level have also started to engage in drug trafficking and other forms of drug-related crime at the national level. The availability of a greater variety of illicit drugs and the increase in the abuse of those drugs, in particular among youth, indicate that the illicit drug market continues to change. CICAD has warned of the growing influence of cartels in politics and of the threat that those cartels pose to security and development in the Americas.
444. In 2009, the total area under illicit coca bush cultivation in South America decreased for a second consecutive year, as a result of a significant reduction of that area in such cultivation in Colombia. The total area under coca bush cultivation in the region in 2009 was 158,800 ha, 8,800 ha less than in 2008 (a decrease of 5 per cent). The Board is pleased to note that in 2009, the total area under illicit coca bush cultivation in Colombia decreased by 16 per cent, to 68,000 ha. In contrast with the situation in Colombia, the total area under illicit coca bush cultivation increased to 30,900 ha in the Plurinational State of Bolivia (an increase of 1 per cent) and to 59,900 ha in Peru (an increase of 7 per cent), in 2009, the fourth consecutive year in which such cultivation increased in those two countries.
445. In South America, over the years, there has been a tendency for illicit drug crop cultivation to move to new areas in response to local eradication campaigns. Thus, the decrease in illicit coca bush cultivation in
Colombia in the past decade has been partly compensated for by an increase in such cultivation on Bolivian and Peruvian territory. The Board is concerned that if the current trend continues, in the period 2010-2011, Peru will replace Colombia as the world’s largest grower of illicit coca bush, a position last held by Peru in 1996.
446. For a number of years, UNODC has estimated the potential manufacture of cocaine for the main coca leaf producing countries with a view to providing information on the global supply of cocaine. That estimation of potential manufacture takes into account several factors, including data on coca leaf production and efficiency in the transformation of coca leaf to cocaine. The Board notes that because of the ongoing review of conversion factors used for estimation in Bolivia (Plurinational State of) and Peru, no single estimated figure was provided for those two countries for 2009; instead, UNODC calculated an estimate of global potential manufacture of cocaine as a range (842-1,111 tons). In Colombia, potential illicit manufacture of cocaine in 2009 was estimated at 410 tons, 40 tons less than in 2008.
447. In some South American countries, financial resources in support of efforts to address drug-related problems continue to be insufficient. The Board calls upon the international community to enhance assistance, including expertise and financial resources, provided to countries in South America to overcome the problems of illicit drug crop cultivation and cocaine manufacture. The Board urges the Governments of Bolivia (Plurinational State of) and Peru to take the measures necessary to reduce the total area under illicit coca bush cultivation on their territory and to counter illicit cocaine manufacture and trafficking, in cooperation with the Governments of other countries and international organizations, including United Nations entities.
448. The abuse of cocaine appears to be rising in several countries in the Southern Cone, including Argentina, Brazil, Chile and Uruguay. According to CICAD experts on demand reduction, although some progress has been made in the Americas in improving treatment for drug abuse over the past 20 years, the demand for such treatment is not being met. The Board encourages Governments of countries in South America to continue to give high priority to treatment for drug abuse when developing national
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drug control policies and to include such treatment in their national health-care systems.
2. Regional cooperation
449. The Nineteenth Meeting of Heads of National Drug Law Enforcement Agencies, Latin America and the Caribbean, was held on Isla Margarita, Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela, from 28 September to 2 October 2009. Pursuant to Commission on Narcotic Drugs resolution 52/10, representatives of 10 West African States also participated in the Meeting, and a round-table discussion was held on strengthening cooperation among bodies involved in tackling the smuggling of drugs from Latin America and the Caribbean into West Africa. The Meeting made recommendations on, inter alia, the need to pay attention to the collection and exchange of intelligence, training, joint operations, the placement of liaison officers, the provision of equipment, and technical support. It also recommended that bilateral or multilateral cooperation agreements be established and that confidence-building measures be developed. The participants agreed that the implementation of those recommendations should be supported by UNODC, ECOWAS and INTERPOL.
450. In December 2009, the European Commission approved the Cooperation Programme between Latin America and the European Union on Anti-Drugs Policies. In the framework of the Cooperation Programme, efforts will be made to consolidate drug control coordination and cooperation mechanisms between the European Union and Latin America through policy support and dialogue, the consolidation of national observatories on drugs and capacity-building in reducing illicit drug supply and demand.
451. Under an interregional programme of the European Union and UNODC, a high-level meeting of heads of drug law enforcement agencies in West Africa and Latin America and the Caribbean was held in Bogota from 25 to 27 January 2010 to promote agreements on joint investigations. Twenty-four bilateral agreements were signed by six West African States (Cape Verde, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea-Bissau, Sierra Leone and Togo) and four Latin American and Caribbean States (Colombia, Dominican Republic, Jamaica and Peru).
452. To exchange experiences with regard to the control of precursors and the negative environmental impact of disposing of residues from the illicit manufacture of synthetic drugs, experts from Bolivia (Plurinational State of), Colombia, Ecuador and Peru held a meeting in Lima on 16 February 2010 in the framework of a project funded by the European Commission entitled “Support for the Andean Community in the area of synthetic drugs” (DROSICAN). At the meeting, the experts stressed the importance of cooperating with the academic community, in particular universities, in efforts to address the problem.
453. In 2009, the Union of South American Nations (UNASUR) established the Consejo Sudamericano de Lucha Contra el Narcotráfico (South American council for the fight against drug trafficking). In April 2010, ministers of the countries concerned ratified the council’s statute, which provides a legal framework for a concerted approach to fighting drug-related problems and for UNASUR drug control activities in that area.
454. Participants in the Twelfth United Nations Congress on Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice, held in Salvador, Brazil, from 12 to 19 April 2010, adopted the Salvador Declaration on Comprehensive Strategies for Global Challenges: Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice Systems and Their Development in a Changing World,36 in which concern was expressed about the negative impact of organized crime on human rights, the rule of law, security and development. A workshop on the links between drug trafficking and other forms of organized crime was organized in the framework of the Congress with a view to strengthening the role of the United Nations, promoting good practices, training and capacity-building and facilitating the efforts of Member States to prevent and control such trafficking.
455. In April 2010, the Madrid Declaration was adopted at the twelfth high-level meeting of the Coordination and Cooperation Mechanism on Drugs between the European Union and Latin America and the Caribbean. The Declaration stresses, among other things, the importance of cooperation on alternative development in regions where crops are cultivated for use in the illicit manufacture of drugs.
456. According to a CICAD study entitled Establishing Drug Treatment Courts: Strategies, Experiences and Preliminary Outcomes, published in
36 A/CONF.213/18, chap. I, resolution 1.
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April 2010, drug treatment courts contribute significantly to reducing recidivism among drug-dependent offenders and help to reduce crime at the local level. The study was developed in the framework of the EU-LAC Drug Treatment City Partnerships initiative and is based on a survey of drug treatment courts in 12 countries in Europe and the Americas, including Brazil, Chile and Suriname.
457. On 19 and 20 May 2010, the Brazilian Federal Police, in partnership with UNODC, organized an international seminar on the interception of telephone and long-distance computerized communications. Experts from eight countries (Brazil, Canada, Colombia, France, New Zealand, Portugal, the United States and the United Kingdom) participated in the seminar, which was held in Brasilia, Brazil. The discussion focused on investigative techniques, legislative frameworks and changes to such frameworks, and cross-border cooperation to strengthen the capacity of law enforcement and the judiciary.
458. In June 2010, the Government of Peru, in cooperation with the European Commission and UNODC, hosted in Lima an international precursor control symposium organized in the framework of a regional programme entitled “Prevention of the diversion of drug precursors in the Latin American and Caribbean region”. At the symposium, representatives from 15 countries in Europe and Latin America and the Caribbean agreed to strengthen controls over precursor chemicals in order to prevent them from being diverted and used in illicit drug manufacture. The topics discussed by national experts included cooperation with the private sector in the area of precursor control.
459. Experts from 11 countries and several international organizations participated in the joint meeting of the task forces of Project Prism and Project Cohesion held in Bogota in June 2010. The meeting was organized to evaluate the projects’ earlier activities (Operation PILA and the second phase of Operation Dice), which had focused on monitoring the trade in and exchanging information on precursors used in the illicit manufacture of amphetamine-type stimulants and heroin, respectively. The experts proposed future operational activities under Project Prism and Project Cohesion and strategies to prevent the diversion of precursors.
460. In July 2010, the Government of Colombia, in cooperation with UNODC, hosted a seminar on drugs and HIV in Colombia that was attended by national and international experts from Canada, Colombia, France, Spain, the United States and Uruguay. Attention was drawn to the relationship between drug abuse, especially the abuse of drugs by injection, and practices that increase the risk of HIV infection.
461. Although cocaine continued to be smuggled by air out of a number of countries in South America, according to the World Customs Organization, airport authorities in South America, Africa and Europe had only recently begun to exchange operational information. The Airport Communication Project (AIRCOP), jointly developed by UNODC, the World Customs Organization and INTERPOL, will focus on strengthening border controls and management and on sharing intelligence among participating international airports in Africa and Latin America and the Caribbean. The Board encourages the Governments concerned to further strengthen such interregional cooperation within the framework of shared responsibility.
462. UNODC, the Inter-American Observatory on Drugs of CICAD and the national drug control commissions of Argentina, Bolivia (Plurinational State of), Chile, Ecuador, Peru and Uruguay jointly published in 2010 the second comparative analysis of drug use among students in secondary schools. In addition, under project DROSICAN, Bolivia (Plurinational State of), Colombia, Ecuador and Peru conducted, from January to November 2009, an epidemiological study on the use of synthetic drugs among the university population in the Andean subregion. 37
463. Brazil, Colombia, Haiti, Nicaragua and Peru are participating in a global project entitled “Partnership for action on comprehensive treatment: treating drug dependence and its health consequences”. The project activities, which are supported by UNODC, include promoting a sound understanding of drug dependence and its treatment.
464. Several countries in South America have signed bilateral agreements for enhancing cooperation in the area of drug control. In 2010, the National Anti-Drug
37 Available from www.comunidadandina.org/public/Estudio_drogas.pdf.
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Secretariat (SENAD) of Paraguay and the National Commission for Development and a Drug-Free Lifestyle (DEVIDA) of Peru signed an agreement to enhance the cooperation of institutions in initiatives for preventing drug abuse and trafficking. Ecuador and Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of) concluded a cooperation agreement to foster cooperation in the prevention and treatment of drug abuse, the rehabilitation and social reintegration of drug abusers and alternative development. Bolivia (Plurinational State of) and Brazil concluded a partnership agreement to enhance cooperation between police authorities involved in combating drug trafficking and transnational organized crime.
3. National legislation, policy and action
465. In December 2009, the Argentine authorities published a national study on the use of psychoactive substances and the connection between the use of such substances and the commission of crime among the prison population. The study, the first of its kind in Argentina, concludes that alcohol and drug use and criminal behaviour are related to social, cultural and economic changes that have occurred in that country in recent decades. The study also found that illicit drug use was significantly higher among the prison population than among the general population.
466. The Bolivian national council for the fight against drug trafficking (CONALTID), with the support of UNODC through its project on strengthening the fight against drug trafficking and related crimes in the Plurinational State of Bolivia, has assessed the country’s national strategy to fight drug trafficking and re-evaluate the coca leaf (covering the period 2007-2010). With the participation of public and private institutions, and international and civil society organizations, CONALTID is formulating a national plan for the prevention and treatment of drug abuse and the social reintegration of drug addicts, as well as a new national policy to fight drug trafficking (covering the period 2011-2015).
467. In September 2010, the Supreme Court of Brazil ruled that failure to consider non-custodial sentences for individuals found guilty of small-scale drug-dealing offences would violate the Constitution. The Government of Brazil has made significant investments in technology to support the monitoring of illicit drug crops in the country and in activities of the Federal Police to counter drug trafficking.
468. In December 2009, the Colombian Congress amended the Constitution to prohibit the possession and use of drugs for purposes other than medical purposes, thereby reversing the Constitutional Court ruling that the punishment for possession of illicit drugs for personal use was unconstitutional. 38 In April 2010, the Government of Colombia launched a new campaign entitled “Colombia, a drug-free territory”, sponsored by the National Narcotics Directorate (DNE), the Ministry of the Interior and Justice and UNODC.
469. In 2009, the Government of Chile approved the national drug control strategy for the period 2009- 2018. In the strategy, the role of the family in preventing drug abuse and alcohol consumption among children and youth is acknowledged. The Government also approved measures and activities, contained in its action plan for the period 2009-2013 and designed to achieve the goals of the strategy.
470. In April 2010, DEVIDA published a catalogue of best practices in the prevention and treatment of drug abuse with the aim of sharing information among professionals on relevant programmes and projects carried out in Peru. In addition, DEVIDA has promoted an initiative aimed at preventing drug traffickers from gaining political influence in the country. As a result of the initiative, a number of political parties in Peru have committed themselves to transparency and the establishment of rigorous procedures for the selection of candidates for elections to be held in 2011.
471. The Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela continued to implement its national drug control plan covering the period 2009-2013 and the national plan for drug abuse prevention entitled “Sowing values for life”. Measures to counter drug trafficking that have been implemented in the country include the installation of a radar network for defending the country’s airspace from drug traffickers, the installation of body scanners at the country’s international airports and the building of facilities for incinerating illicit drugs.
38 Article 49 of the Constitution states that the possession
and consumption of narcotic drugs and psychotropic substances are prohibited, with the exception of medical prescriptions.
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4. Cultivation, production, manufacture and trafficking
Narcotic drugs
472. Although cannabis plants are illicitly cultivated in most countries in South America, information on the areas under illicit crop cultivation is too scattered and scarce for a comprehensive analysis of trends in such cultivation to be carried out. Paraguay continues to be the main South American country used for illicit cannabis production. According to figures for 2008, illicitly cultivated cannabis plants covered about 6,000 ha in Paraguay, in an area close to the Brazilian border (potential yield: 16,500 tons of cannabis herb). In 2009, the Paraguayan law enforcement authorities, in cooperation with their Brazilian counterparts, eradicated over 2,000 ha of cannabis plants. In the same year, the total amount of cannabis herb seized in Paraguay decreased by more than one half, to 85.4 tons (compared with 173.4 tons in 2008). UNODC estimates that about 80 per cent of the cannabis found in Brazil originates in Paraguay.
473. In 2009, the Colombian drug observatory estimated that illicitly cultivated cannabis plants covered about 210 ha of the country’s territory. In 2009, about 170 ha of illicitly cultivated cannabis plants were eradicated in the country. The Venezuelan authorities did not identify any illicit cultivation of cannabis plants in their country. In the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela, the amount of seized Colombian cannabis increased from 20.7 tons in 2008 to 32.6 tons in 2009. Cannabis is the only drug illicitly produced in Chile. The amount of cannabis herb seized in Chile increased gradually from 5 tons in 2005 to nearly 14 tons in 2009.
474. The extent of the indoor cultivation of cannabis plants in South America is not known. According to UNODC, Argentina is the only country in the region that reported the illicit cultivation of cannabis plants indoors.
475. In Colombia, the authorities seized 209 tons of cannabis herb in 2009; from 2006 to 2009, Colombian authorities seized on average 189 tons of cannabis herb per year. In the Plurinational State of Bolivia, seizures of cannabis plants and cannabis herb rose from 424 tons in 2007 to 1,964 tons in 2009. From 2008 to 2009, the amount of cannabis plants seized in
Peru increased from 61 to 137.5 tons, the largest amount seized since 2000.
476. In 2009, the total area under illicit coca bush cultivation in South America decreased by 5 per cent, to 158,800 ha (compared with 167,600 ha in 2008). Colombia accounted for 43 per cent of that total (68,000 ha); it was followed by Peru (59,900 ha or 38 per cent) and the Plurinational State of Bolivia (30,900 ha or 19 per cent). Illicit coca bush cultivation on sites covering less than 25 ha was reported in Ecuador.
477. In South America, illicitly cultivated coca bush is eradicated manually or by aerial spraying.
478. In Colombia, 60,500 ha of illicit coca bush cultivation were eradicated manually and an additional 104,800 ha were subject to cumulative aerial spraying in 2009 (a total of 165,300 ha). In 2009, the Peruvian authorities eradicated 10,025 ha of illicit coca bush cultivation, the smallest area eradicated in the country since 2003. In 2009, Bolivian authorities eradicated 6,300 ha of illicit coca bush cultivation (16 per cent more than in 2008), mostly in the Tropics of Cochabamba region.
479. According to UNODC, between 2005 and 2008 the global cocaine interception rate exceeded the annual benchmark of 40 per cent. In 2008, 123 countries reported having seized a total of 360 tons of cocaine (amount adjusted for purity), thus contributing to a reduction in the potential availability of that drug (from 865 to about 500 tons).
480. From 2008 to 2009, the total amount of seized cocaine increased in Paraguay (to 0.6 tons, an increase of 114 per cent) and Ecuador (from 15.7 to 53.4 tons, an increase of more than 300 per cent). The total amount of seized cocaine decreased in Bolivia (Plurinational State of) (to 4.9 tons, a decrease of 32 per cent), Chile (to 2.7 tons, a decrease of 10 per cent), Peru (to 10.7 tons, a decrease of 36 per cent) and Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of) (to 27.7 tons, a decrease of 17 per cent). In Brazil, a total of 20 tons of cocaine were seized in 2009, an amount not significantly different from the amount seized in 2008. In Colombia, seizures of cocaine hydrochloride remained stable in 2009, amounting to 200 tons.
481. The three main illicit markets for cocaine are in North America, Europe and the Southern Cone, which
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in 2008, accounted for about 41, 29 and 10-20 per cent, respectively, of global cocaine consumption. While the market for cocaine has decreased in North America, it continues to increase in Europe.
482. Despite the efforts of authorities in countries in Central America and the Caribbean to combat the drug trafficking, the region continues to be part of a major trafficking route for illicit shipments of controlled drugs originating in South America and destined for North America and Europe. Most of the cocaine abused in Canada and the United States is smuggled out of Colombia through Mexico or countries in Central America.
483. Although Colombia remains the primary source of the cocaine found in Europe, Peru is becoming an increasingly important country of origin. The European Police Office (Europol) has identified the three main sea routes used to smuggle cocaine into Europe: the “northern route”, leading from the Caribbean via the Azores to the coasts of Portugal and Spain; the “central route”, leading from South America via Cape Verde or Madeira and the Canary Islands to Europe; and the “African route”, leading from South America to West Africa and then mainly to Spain and Portugal. The trans-shipment of cocaine has become a significant threat to the security and political stability of the countries in Central America and the Caribbean.
484. The World Customs Organization has identified the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela as one of the principal countries of origin of cocaine shipments seized in Western Europe and has warned of the increasing role played by Brazil, Ecuador and Suriname as countries of departure of cocaine shipments. In 2009, the Venezuelan authorities seized more than 30 aircraft that had been used to transport drugs and destroyed 48 unauthorized airstrips in the country. Some of the seized aircraft had been modified to increase their flying range. The Board is concerned about the continued smuggling of drugs through the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela.
485. Approximately five years ago, West Africa emerged as a hub for the smuggling of cocaine from Latin America into Europe. Most of the cocaine shipped to West Africa was being smuggled by boat or light aircraft. More recently, there have been indications that in order to smuggle drugs further inland, traffickers are taking advantage of the absence of a radar control network in the region by using aircraft designed to carry heavy cargo.
486. In past years, the use of semi-submersibles for smuggling drugs has strongly increased. According to the Colombian authorities, 19 semi-submersibles were seized worldwide from 1993 to 2007. In 2008 and 2009 alone, the law enforcement authorities seized 34 semi-submersibles. The level of technological advancement and the transport capacity of such vessels have developed over the years, as evidenced by the seizure of a submarine capable of carrying 14 tons of drugs. The submarine was seized during a law enforcement operation carried out in Ecuador, near that country’s border with Colombia, in July 2010.
487. Over the past four years, the size of coca-processing laboratories in South America has decreased while their number has increased. Over 99 per cent of the approximately 10,000 coca-processing laboratories destroyed worldwide in 2008 were located in Bolivia (Plurinational State of), Colombia or Peru. In 2008, cocaine laboratories were dismantled in Argentina (20), the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela (10), Chile (4) and Ecuador (3).
488. According to DNE of Colombia, about 90 per cent of the 2,959 clandestine drug laboratories destroyed in the country in 2009 had been illicitly processing coca paste or cocaine base; the remainder had been illicitly manufacturing cocaine hydrochloride. The number of clandestine drug laboratories dismantled in Colombia in 2009 decreased by 14.3 per cent compared with the number of such laboratories dismantled in 2008 (3,451). In Colombia, clandestine drug laboratories are becoming smaller and easier to set up and disassemble, which makes them more difficult for law enforcement authorities to detect.
489. The capacity of traffickers from Bolivia (Plurinational State of) and Peru to manufacture cocaine has grown in the past few years. In 2009, authorities in Peru dismantled approximately 1,200 laboratories for processing coca paste and 25 used for manufacturing cocaine hydrochloride. The Bolivian authorities destroyed about 6,700 maceration pits and about 4,900 laboratories for processing coca paste and coca base.
490. Ecuadorian    law    enforcement    authorities
destroyed several large-scale drug laboratories in 2009 and 2010. In October 2009, they dismantled one of the
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largest cocaine manufacturing laboratories in the country; it was estimated that the laboratory could manufacture 20 tons of cocaine per month. Another clandestine laboratory, capable of converting each month approximately 1 ton of coca paste into cocaine hydrochloride, was dismantled in April 2010. The Board is concerned about the increasing cocaine manufacturing capacity in Ecuador. Although the Venezuelan authorities did not detect any illicit cultivation of coca bush in their country, in 2009 they detected and destroyed 26 illicit drug manufacturing laboratories.
491. The total area under illicit opium poppy cultivation in South America accounts for less than 1 per cent of the total area under such cultivation worldwide. In Colombia, the country in which most of the illicit opium poppy cultivation in South America takes place, such cultivation is limited to mountainous areas and has gradually declined from 6,500 ha in 2000 to 356 ha in 2009 (potential heroin manufacture: 1 ton). In 2009, Colombian authorities eradicated illicitly cultivated opium poppy covering a total area of 546 ha. The heroin manufactured in Colombia is sold on the illicit market in that country or smuggled into other countries in the Americas, in particular the United States.
492. In Peru, in 2009 the authorities eradicated 31.5 ha of opium poppy and seized 75 kg of opium latex. In 2008, Peru reported the destruction of one clandestine laboratory for processing opiates.
493. In 2009, the South American country reporting the largest total amount of heroin seized was Colombia (over 735 kg), followed by Ecuador (178 kg) and the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela (80 kg).
Psychotropic substances
494. According to the World Customs Organization, the total amount of MDMA (“ecstasy”) seized by customs authorities worldwide decreased from 5,929 kg in 2007 to only 218 kg in 2009, and such a sharp decline in the amount of “ecstasy” seized worldwide could be attributed to an increase in the manufacture of that substance in countries in which it is sold on illicit markets and a decrease in the smuggling of that substance across national borders. Argentina, Brazil, Chile and Colombia reported seizures of “ecstasy” by either customs or police authorities in 2009. In the period 2008-2009, the manufacture of “ecstasy” was reported in Argentina and Brazil.
495. The Colombian authorities warned about attempts to barter cocaine from South America for MDMA (“ecstasy”) tablets from Europe. In addition, those authorities conducted a survey whose findings confirmed that many of the tablets sold as “ecstasy” on illicit markets in that country actually contained a mixture of psychoactive substances, including analgesics, benzodiazepines, cocaine, heroin and methaqualone. The unpredictable composition of those tablets and the unknown quantity of active ingredients they contained made them especially harmful to “ecstasy” abusers. In July 2010, the Peruvian authorities reported that 251,000 “ecstasy” tablets and over 100 kg of cocaine had been seized in Lima.
496. In 2009, the Chilean authorities reported the seizure of a small-scale laboratory for illicitly manufacturing mescaline, a psychotropic substance in Table I of the 1971 Convention. It was the first time that such a clandestine laboratory had been identified in Chile.
Precursors
497. Potassium permanganate remains the key oxidizing agent used to manufacture cocaine. According to DNE of Colombia, the availability of potassium permanganate for use in the illicit manufacture of cocaine has increased in recent years despite the seizure of large amounts of the substance and the implementation of the necessary control measures in the country. In 2009, 22.8 tons of potassium permanganate were seized in Colombia. Although that was the smallest total quantity of potassium permanganate seized in the country in the period 2000-2009, it was the largest total quantity of the substance seized in a single country in 2009 accounting for 90 per cent of the total amount of potassium permanganate seized worldwide. In 2009, the seizure of potassium permanganate in quantities larger than 100 kg was also reported in Peru (1,770 kg) and Ecuador (480 kg).
498. A portion of the potassium permanganate seized in Colombia had been illicitly manufactured in clandestine laboratories. From 2004 to 2008, 58 clandestine laboratories manufacturing potassium permanganate were seized in the country. Although traffickers’ capacity to manufacture their own
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potassium permanganate still remains difficult to assess, the Colombian authorities indicate that potassium permanganate may be illicitly manufactured in sufficient quantities to cover most of the traffickers’ needs for the substance. In 2009, two laboratories illicitly manufacturing potassium permanganate were destroyed in the country.
499. In the past three years, Argentina, Chile, Colombia and Peru have strengthened controls over the licit trade in ephedrine and pseudoephedrine, including in the form of pharmaceutical preparations. The measures taken included restricting or banning the import and use of those substances. Nonetheless, ephedrine and pseudoephedrine have continued to be smuggled. In 2009, a total of over 1.5 tons of raw ephedrine were seized by Chilean, Colombian and Venezuelan authorities. In addition, Argentina, Brazil and Colombia reported seizures of ephedrine and pseudoephedrine in the form of pharmaceutical preparations. In July 2010, the Colombian law enforcement authorities seized 2 million tablets containing pseudoephedrine in a shipment bound for Honduras. The Board encourages Governments to use the “Guidelines for a voluntary code of practice for the chemical industry”, developed by the Board, to further strengthen control over the precursor chemical trade in their countries, in cooperation with the private sector.
Substances not under international control
500. The Governments of countries in South America continue to pay attention to the use of psychoactive substances that are not currently under international control. In January 2010, the National Anti-Drugs Council (CONAD) of Brazil adopted a resolution on the use of ayahuasca for religious purposes. In March 2010, the Government of Argentina approved decree 299/2010, pursuant to which ketamine was included on the list of substances subject to national control.
501. The health and drug regulatory authorities of several countries in the Americas have recently focused on herbal mixtures marketed under the brand name Spice. As small amounts of synthetic cannabinoids have been identified in such mixtures, there is concern that the use of Spice products may have negative effects on health. The CICAD group of experts on chemical substances has recently prepared for all
CICAD member States factsheets on scopolamine (hyoscine) and Spice products.
5. Abuse and treatment
502. The latest estimates on drug abuse indicate that cannabis continues to be the most abused drug in South America, where about 7.5 million persons aged 15-64 used that drug during the past year, three times the number of persons who used cocaine during the past year.
503. The Board notes that recently, a number of countries in South America have used common methodologies in conducting surveys on drug abuse in the region. For example, Argentina, Bolivia (Plurinational State of), Chile, Ecuador, Peru and Uruguay conducted the second comparative analysis of drug use among students in secondary schools. According to the results of the analysis, cannabis herb is the drug most commonly abused among students aged 13-17. On average, almost 11 per cent of the students in those six countries had used the substance at least once in their lifetime; the percentages in the individual countries ranged from 4 per cent in Peru to almost 23 per cent in Chile. The Board wishes to encourage the Governments of the countries in South America to periodically carry out, in cooperation with CICAD and UNODC, standardized drug abuse surveys to enable the magnitude of the drug abuse problem to be assessed and compared in countries throughout the region.
504. The results of the first national survey on the use of alcohol, tobacco and other drugs among university students in 27 Brazilian state capitals, announced by the Government of Brazil in June 2010, indicate that 8 per cent of the university students in the survey were at risk of becoming dependent on cannabis. The Brazilian study also revealed that almost half of the surveyed students had used a psychoactive substance at least once in their lifetime and that there had been an increase in the abuse of synthetic drugs (amphetamines and MDMA (“ecstasy”)). The drug most often abused among university students was cannabis (13.8 per cent), followed by amphetamines (10.5 per cent).
505. Past-year prevalence of cocaine abuse among the general population in South America (0.9-1.0 per cent) is far lower than in North America (2.0 per cent) but higher than in Central America (0.5-0.6 per cent). According to UNODC, in South America cases
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involving treatment for cocaine abuse accounted for 65 per cent of all cases involving treatment for substance abuse in 1998, and that figure decreased, in relative terms, to 49 per cent in 2008. For the past 10 years, cocaine has been the primary drug of abuse among persons treated for drug problems in the region.
506. Demand for “crack” cocaine appears to be emerging in some countries in South America. In 2008, seizures of “crack” cocaine were reported in Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Paraguay and Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of). In the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela, lifetime prevalence of the abuse of “crack” cocaine among the population aged 15-70 is 11.9 per cent. In that country, about a quarter of the persons who received treatment for drug addiction were addicted to “crack” cocaine. In 2010, the Government of Brazil launched its integrated plan to combat “crack” cocaine and other drugs.
507. In South America, the countries with the highest prevalence of abuse of prescription opioids among persons aged 15-64 are Brazil and Chile (0.5 per cent in 2008). In both countries, the abuse of prescription opioids is the main problem, while the abuse of heroin is still low. In Chile, the estimate of 0.5 per cent for 2008 represents an increase compared with the figure for 2006 (0.3 per cent). In other countries in the region, the prevalence of abuse of opiates is low, ranging from 0.1 per cent in Ecuador to 0.3 per cent in the Plurinational State of Bolivia. In most countries in South America, the abuse of synthetic opioids is more common than the abuse of heroin.
508. According to an epidemiological study of the consumption of synthetic drugs among the university population in the Andean subregion, the highest lifetime prevalence of the abuse of MDMA (“ecstasy”) among students was in Colombia (about 3.5 per cent), followed by Ecuador, Peru and the Plurinational State of Bolivia.
509. According to the second comparative analysis of drug consumption among students in secondary schools in the region, the countries with the highest past-year prevalence of cocaine abuse among persons aged 15-16 were Uruguay (3.7 per cent), Chile (3.21 per cent), Argentina (3.16 per cent), the Plurinational State of Bolivia (2.12 per cent), Ecuador (1.52 per cent) and Peru (0.95 per cent).
510. According to the 2009 AIDS Epidemic Update, published by the Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS and WHO, an estimated 29 per cent of the more than 2 million Latin Americans who abuse drugs by injection are infected with HIV. HIV epidemics among such drug abusers in the region tend to be concentrated in the Southern Cone. It is estimated that in Argentina alone, almost half of the persons who abuse drugs by injection are infected with HIV.
C. Asia
East and South-East Asia
1. Major developments
511. In East and South-East Asia, progress in reducing opium production is under threat, owing to an upswing in opium poppy cultivation during the 2009 growing season. Successes in reducing opium poppy cultivation in the region have been built on decades of successful alternative development work in rural communities; however, the information available for the last three years has been less encouraging. Several factors have contributed to the increase in illicit opium poppy cultivation in the area known as the Golden Triangle. It should be noted that despite some increases in illicit opium poppy cultivation since 2008 in South-East Asia, that subregion accounts for less than 5 per cent of global opium poppy production. Myanmar remains the main opium-producing country in the subregion, accounting for approximately 95 per cent of total opium production in South-East Asia; it is followed by the Lao People’s Democratic Republic and Thailand. A significant increase in the total area under illicit opium poppy cultivation has been reported in Myanmar; the total area under such cultivation in that country in 2009 was 31,700 ha, an increase of 11 per cent over the figure for 2008 (28,500 ha). Opium poppy cultivation and potential opium production increased in the Lao People’s Democratic Republic in 2009; the total area under illicit opium poppy cultivation, in that country amounted to 1,900 ha in 2009, an increase of 19 per cent over 2008. According to UNODC, potential production of opium in Thailand was negligible in 2009 — about 3 tons.
512. An issue of paramount concern to East and South-East Asia has been the increasing trafficking in, illicit manufacture of and abuse of synthetic drugs in
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recent years, in particular amphetamine-type stimulants, which, because of their low costs of manufacture, ease of availability and considerable addictive potential, represent a major challenge to national health authorities. Since 2008, Cambodia, Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar and the Philippines have reported the dismantling of several laboratories that were illicitly manufacturing amphetamine-type stimulants. The number of seizures of amphetamine-type stimulants, including methamphetamine tablets and crystalline methamphetamine, has been increasing in the region. China reported large seizures of methamphetamine in 2009. Methamphetamine trafficking was reported to have increased in Japan in 2009; methamphetamine was being smuggled into that country out of Latin America, West Asia and Africa. In the Lao People’s Democratic Republic, increased seizures of tablets containing different types of amphetamine-type stimulants, mostly methamphetamine, were also reported.
513. Amphetamine-type    stimulants    (primarily
methamphetamine) and opioids and cannabis continue to be widely abused in East and South-East Asia. Cases involving opioids and methamphetamine make up the bulk of treatment episodes for drug abuse. Persons who abuse drugs by injection account for an alarmingly high percentage of the drug abusers in the region: it is estimated that approximately 25 per cent of all injecting drug abusers in the world live in East and South-East Asia. The risk of an HIV epidemic among the drug-injecting population in the region is therefore high.
2. Regional cooperation
514. The Thirty-fourth Meeting of Heads of National Drug Law Enforcement Agencies, Asia and the Pacific, was held in Bangkok from 30 November to 3 December 2010. The main goal of the meeting was to promote and coordinate capacity-building for law enforcement in the region. The issues discussed included major regional drug trafficking trends and countermeasures, including international cooperation, specific law enforcement measures, such as controlled delivery, and approaches to strengthen regional cooperation with regard to the dismantling of clandestine drug laboratories.
515. In 2009, border liaison offices assisted the Governments of Cambodia, China, the Lao People’s
Democratic Republic, Myanmar, Thailand and Viet Nam in conducting numerous joint operations that led to several seizures of drugs and precursors and to the dismantling of clandestine laboratories. A cross-border cooperation meeting between Cambodia and the Lao People’s Democratic Republic was held in Preah Vihear, Cambodia, and Ban Meuang Sene, Lao People’s Democratic Republic, from 19 to 23 July 2010 to bring together law enforcement officers from the border liaison offices of both countries and build a network for information-sharing.
516. Ministers for foreign affairs of member States of the European Union and the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), as well as the Secretary-General of ASEAN, at the eighteenth ASEAN-European Union Ministerial Meeting, on the theme “Partners in regional integration”, held in Madrid on 26 May 2010, reaffirmed their commitment to promoting cooperation to combat drug trafficking. The foreign ministers also reaffirmed the unique character of the partnership between ASEAN and the European Union, underlining the potential strategic importance of the partnership, bearing in mind that there were approximately 1.25 billion people living in the member States of ASEAN and the European Union.
517. A Senior Officials Committee meeting among the signatories to the 1993 memorandum of understanding on drugs in the Greater Mekong subregion was hosted by the Government of Viet Nam in Da Nang from 11 to 14 May 2010 to review and assess the implementation of the memorandum’s subregional action plan and related projects.
518. The twenty-third ASEAN-Australia Forum was held in Singapore on 19 March 2010, with the participation of representatives from Australia, ASEAN member States and the ASEAN secretariat, to tackle, among other issues, cooperative mechanisms for combating transnational organized crime, including drug trafficking.
519. The first ASEAN-United States Leaders’ Meeting, on the theme “Enhanced partnership for enduring peace and prosperity”, was held in Singapore on 15 November 2009. Leaders from around the world, including Heads of State or Government of the member States of ASEAN and the United States, gathered to enhance regional partnership and issued a joint statement on strengthening efforts to prevent and
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combat transnational organized crime, including drug trafficking.
520. The fifteenth Asia-Pacific Operational Drug Enforcement Conference was held in Tokyo in February 2010. The meeting promoted information exchange and cooperation in investigations and the sharing of knowledge and experiences acquired in international drug control.
3. National legislation, policy and action
521. The Board notes that the Governments of Japan and Thailand have taken proactive measures to prevent drug abuse through successful cooperation among related ministries and agencies, such as the Drug Abuse Prevention Center of Japan, as well as their private sectors. In Thailand, the “To be number one” campaign, a joint initiative of the Ministry of Health and the Ministry of Education, has been launched with the theme “You can only be the best you can be by not using drugs”. Actions under the campaign included the promotion of nationwide drug abuse awareness and prevention in schools and communities.
522. Several countries in East and South-East Asia have adopted or enacted new laws or regulations for drug control. Indonesia reported enacting its law on narcotics in 2009, which brings internationally controlled substances, including precursors, under national control and defines the competencies of authorities at the national and provincial levels. In the Lao People’s Democratic Republic, a new drug law was promulgated in January 2009. Also in 2009, the Prime Minister’s decree on the implementation of the law on drugs was enacted. In Mongolia, a new law was implemented in 2009, providing for the monitoring of narcotic drugs and envisaging psychological assistance for addicts. Following the adoption of a new customs law in 2008, the Mongolian Customs General Administration began to reform its risk-assessment techniques related to drug control.
523. In Myanmar, safrole oil was recently listed as a controlled precursor chemical. It is now subject to the same control measures as substances in Table I of the 1988 Convention. In April 2009 the Philippines enacted the regulation on controlled precursors and essential chemicals and in November 2009 the regulation on psychotropic substances, which included N-benzylpiperazine in the list of dangerous drugs. In July 2009 the Republic of Korea enacted the enforcement decree of the act on the control of narcotics, through which additional substances and precursor chemicals were placed under national control. In addition, in October 2009 the Republic of Korea enacted the enforcement rule of the act on the control of narcotics, which stipulated the provisions for travellers entering the country carrying controlled substances.
524. Singapore introduced, with effect from July 2009, a new law for the control of the export of cough preparations containing codeine. Viet Nam adopted an amendment and supplement to the drug control law, which came into effect in January 2009, redefining the responsibilities of national authorities in preventing drug abuse and controlling the licit drug supply, including the roles of law enforcement agencies such as the police, maritime police, border protection forces and customs service. In addition, the amendment and supplement to the penal code adopted in June 2009 came into effect in January 2010. According to the new law, the abuse of narcotic drugs is no longer a criminal offence in Viet Nam.
525. Thailand has enacted new ministerial regulations on rules and procedures for issuing licences to manufacture, import, sell or possess with intent to sell drugs in Schedule II or preparations in Schedule III of the 1961 Convention. The regulations came into effect in September 2009, redefining the responsibilities of national authorities in controlling the illicit drug supply and availability.
4. Cultivation, production, manufacture and trafficking
Narcotic drugs
526. Illicit cultivation of cannabis plant continues to be a problem in East and South-East Asia. In the Lao People’s Democratic Republic, illicit cannabis plant cultivation has taken place mainly in the central provinces for export to neighbouring countries, particularly in areas near the Mekong. Some 2,800 kg of cannabis were seized in April 2010 in Khamouan Province, on the Lao-Thai border. In Japan, cannabis plants were illicitly cultivated indoors for domestic use, and arrests and seizures relating to such cultivation increased in 2009. In Mongolia, illicit cannabis production, trafficking and abuse were on the rise, although still considered small in scale. The level of cultivation was estimated to be low in that country,
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as the most common local source of cannabis was naturally growing cannabis plants in the northern provinces.
527. Significant amounts of cannabis continue to be seized in East and South-East Asia. In 2009, Chinese authorities seized a total of 8.7 tons of cannabis — the largest total amount of seized cannabis ever reported by China. In the Lao People’s Democratic Republic, where cannabis seizures totalled 978 kg in 2009, almost 3 tons of cannabis were seized in the first half of 2010. Viet Nam also reported significant problems with cannabis trafficking: 1.6 tons of cannabis were seized in 2009. Indonesia and Thailand reported having seized large amounts of cannabis over the past two years.
528. Illicit opium poppy cultivation increased in East and South-East Asia from 2008 to 2009. In 2009, the total area under illicit opium poppy cultivation was 33,811 ha, representing an increase of 11 per cent over the figure for 2008 (30,388 ha). In Myanmar, illicit opium poppy cultivation increased from 27,700 ha in 2007 to 28,500 ha in 2008 and reached a total of 31,700 ha in 2009. Opium poppy cultivation in the Lao People’s Democratic Republic increased in 2009 to an estimated 1,900 ha, up from 1,600 ha in 2008 and 1,500 ha in 2007. Small-scale opium poppy cultivation continued in Thailand, where approximately 211 ha of opium poppy were cultivated in scattered areas. The Government of Myanmar continued its efforts to eliminate illicit opium poppy cultivation, dispatching eradication teams to opium poppy fields in remote and mountainous areas of the country. As a result, Myanmar reported the eradication in 2009 of illicitly cultivated opium poppy covering 4,087 ha. In Viet Nam, the total area under opium poppy cultivation continued to decrease, amounting to 31 ha in the growing period 2009/10.
529. In South-East Asia, there has been a significant reduction in illicit opium production over the past two decades as a result of a combination of law enforcement and alternative development initiatives. Because of lower yield per hectare, illicit production of raw opium in the Lao People’s Democratic Republic, Myanmar and Thailand totalled 345 tons in 2009, a decrease over the figure for 2008 (424 tons). In Myanmar, potential production of opium declined from 410 tons in 2008 to 330 tons in 2009, a decrease of 20 per cent. Nevertheless, Myanmar has remained the main opium-producing country in the region, accounting for approximately 95 per cent of total opium production in South-East Asia. Potential opium production in the Lao People’s Democratic Republic in 2009 was estimated at 11.4 tons, increasing from 9.6 tons in 2008. There was a risk of opium poppy cultivation increasing in the country because of the high price for opium and the absence of alternative development initiatives.
530. Seizures of opium continued to be reported. China reported seizures of opium totalling 1.3 tons in 2009. Increasing seizures of opium were reported by the Lao People’s Democratic Republic. In contrast, there was a significant decline in the amount of opium seized in Viet Nam.
531. According to INTERPOL, illicit heroin manufacture in South-East Asia has declined substantially in the past five years, as a result of several years of unfavourable growing conditions and new Government policies of forced eradication. However, preliminary figures for 2009 indicate an increased number of seizures of opiates (mainly heroin). In some countries in the region, heroin has been trafficked by international drug trafficking organizations, including some originating in Africa. The drug trafficking organizations, operating in Cambodia, China (including Hong Kong), Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines and Thailand, have close ties with their supply sources in West Asia. Furthermore, cases involving non-Chinese drug traffickers have increased significantly in China. The increasing involvement of Iranian nationals and organized criminal organizations in drug trafficking was reported as a new development in the region in 2009 and 2010.
532. China reported seizures of heroin totalling 5.8 tons in 2009, compared with 4.3 tons in 2008. China, Malaysia, Thailand and Viet Nam accounted for the majority of the heroin seizures in East and South-East Asia. In Hong Kong, China, 59 kg of heroin was seized in 2009, compared with 46 kg in 2008. In Viet Nam, where 213 kg of heroin was seized in 2009, trafficking in opiates continued, as the country is used by drug traffickers as a major transit area for shipments to China and Australia. In Viet Nam, more than 11 kg of heroin was seized in May 2010 through the cooperation of Lao and Vietnamese forces, culminating in the arrest of West and Southern African and
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Vietnamese drug traffickers. The amount of heroin trafficked into Viet Nam increased by 27 per cent from 2008 to 2009. Trafficking in opiates continued to be a serious problem in the Lao People’s Democratic Republic, which reported increasing seizures of heroin.
533. Seizures of cocaine in East and South-East Asia appear to be declining, although Hong Kong, China, and the Philippines reported increasing cocaine seizures in 2009. China was not only a country of destination, but also a transit country for cocaine shipments originating in South America. The amount of cocaine seized in China decreased from 558 kg in 2008 to only 41 kg in 2009. The Lao People’s Democratic Republic also reported declining cocaine seizures.
Psychotropic substances
534. Illicit manufacture of and trafficking in amphetamine-type stimulants have remained a serious concern in East and South-East Asia. The illicit manufacture of amphetamine-type stimulants has taken place virtually wherever there is easy access to the required precursor chemicals. The number of clandestine laboratories dismantled in China increased from 244 in 2008 to 391 in 2009. Although illicit manufacture of methamphetamine on a large scale did not take place in Hong Kong, China, several small-scale “kitchen labs” were dismantled in 2009. Over the past two years, Cambodia, Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar and the Philippines reported the dismantling of several clandestine laboratories manufacturing amphetamine-type stimulants.
535. The smuggling of amphetamine-type stimulants from the so-called Golden Triangle into China continued to increase in 2009, the most common substance smuggled being methamphetamine. In 2009, 6.6 tons of methamphetamine was seized in China. The quantity of amphetamine-type stimulants seized surpassed that of heroin in 22 Chinese provinces in 2009. According to INTERPOL, significant quantities of methamphetamine were smuggled out of the Islamic Republic of Iran via neighbouring countries into East and South-East Asia. In Indonesia, thousands of kilograms of methamphetamine were seized in 2009. In Hong Kong, China, a number of successful operations resulting in the interception of methamphetamine consignments in 2009 were reported; the consignments had been destined for illicit markets in Australia and
Japan. In recent years, methamphetamine has been smuggled into Japan not only from neighbouring countries but also from Latin America, West Asia and Africa. In 2009, the number of cases of methamphetamine trafficking in Japan more than doubled the number recorded in the previous years.
536. The Lao People’s Democratic Republic has been used as a transit country for amphetamine-type stimulants since the late 1990s. The use of the Lao People’s Democratic Republic as a transit area for shipments of methamphetamine originating in Myanmar and destined for Thailand increased after Thai law enforcement efforts were strengthened along the northern Thai-Myanmar border. The number of seizures of tablets containing various types of amphetamine-type stimulants in the Lao People’s Democratic Republic almost doubled between 2008 and 2009; more than 80 per cent of those seizures involved methamphetamine tablets. More than 2,330,000 methamphetamine tablets were seized in the country in 2009. A shipment of some 21.8 million tablets containing amphetamine-type stimulants, weighing 2.18 tons, was seized in February 2010. Drug-related crime and violence were also reported to have increased in the Lao People’s Democratic Republic. Viet Nam reported having seized over 500,000 methamphetamine tablets in 2009.
537. In 2009, nearly 1.1 million MDMA (“ecstasy”) tablets were seized in China. In Indonesia, seizures of “ecstasy” were more common than seizures of methamphetamine; millions of “ecstasy” tablets were seized in 2009. In Japan, where “ecstasy” from Canada and Western European countries, in particular Belgium, has been trafficked, the number of seized “ecstasy” tablets decreased substantially, from 217,172 in 2008 to 61,280 in 2009. In Hong Kong, China, in 2009 and 2010, there was a continuing trend in which “ecstasy” tablets were increasingly containing substances other than MDMA, such as a mixture of methamphetamine and ketamine. The “ecstasy” seized nowadays in Hong Kong, China, has been reported to originate in Asia, not Europe. While Europe is still cited as a source of MDMA, the importance of that region as a source has decreased as more countries outside of Europe have reported the manufacture of the substance on their territory. For example, the sources of MDMA seized in Indonesia were reported to be illicit manufacture of the substance in that country, as well as China and the Netherlands.
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538. One notable development in recent years is the growing presence of nimetazepam, a benzodiazepine in Schedule IV of the 1971 Convention, on the illicit markets of some East and South-East Asian countries. Large seizures of the substance have been made in Indonesia and Malaysia in recent years, and a rise in the abuse of nimetazepam was reported in Brunei Darussalam, Hong Kong, China, Indonesia, Malaysia and Thailand.
539. In China, GHB was reported to be mixed with MDMA (“ecstasy”) and ketamine in drugs of abuse.
540. In Singapore, where diversion and abuse of buprenorphine had been a problem, a significant decline in such illicit activities became evident in 2009, owing to new legislation enforced in 2009 and stricter penalties imposed by the Government for illicit activities involving that substance.
Precursors
541. Most diversions of precursors take place because of the ability of criminal groups to exploit gaps in national regulatory frameworks for monitoring trade in precursors and identifying suspicious transactions. International and regional efforts have been undertaken to prevent the diversion in East and South-East Asia of precursors.
542. Despite efforts made by the Government of China in precursor control, a number of countries reported seizures of precursors originating in China that had been intended for use in the illicit manufacture of methamphetamine.
543. Myanmar has exchanged information on a regular basis with the neighbouring countries of China, India, the Lao People’s Democratic Republic and Thailand in order to prevent the diversion of precursor chemicals.
544. There have been indications that transnational organized criminal groups are increasingly smuggling precursor chemicals through the Lao People’s Democratic Republic. In 2009, there were several instances    of extraction    of ephedrine    and
pseudoephedrine from pharmaceutical products in East and South-East Asia, which reflects a global trend.
Substances not under international control
545. Ketamine continued to be seized in several countries in East and South-East Asia. In 2008, figures for ketamine seizures were higher than those for annual heroin seizures in the region: 6.3 tons of ketamine was seized, compared with 5.2 tons of heroin. The countries reporting seizures or abuse of ketamine included Brunei Darussalam, China (including Hong Kong), Malaysia, Singapore, Thailand and Viet Nam. Forensic data suggest that many of the so-called “ecstasy” tablets seized in the region actually contain substances other than MDMA, such as ketamine.
546. In China, ketamine was ranked fifth among all drugs of abuse. Prevalence of the abuse of ketamine has increased. The abuse of ketamine accounts for more than a third of all drug abuse cases registered as involving “new-type drugs”. China reported having seized over 5,323 kg of ketamine in 2009. Recent reports pointed out that rather than diverting ketamine licitly manufactured as an anaesthetic, drug trafficking organizations have recently been attempting to procure the precursor hydroxylamine hydrochloride and use it to illicitly manufacture ketamine in clandestine laboratories.
5. Abuse and treatment
547. Cannabis continues to be the primary drug of abuse in Indonesia. Thailand has indicated that cannabis is the second most common drug of abuse in the country. In Japan, cannabis abuse accounted for the second-largest number of drug-related arrests. Other countries in East and South-East Asia reporting cannabis abuse included Brunei Darussalam, Cambodia, China, Indonesia, Japan, the Lao People’s Democratic Republic, Malaysia, Myanmar, the Philippines, the Republic of Korea, Singapore, Thailand and Viet Nam.
548. Heroin continued to be the primary drug of abuse in China, Malaysia, Myanmar, Singapore and Viet Nam. Most countries in East and South-East Asia reported stable or decreasing trends in heroin abuse; the exceptions were the Lao People’s Democratic Republic, Singapore, Thailand and Viet Nam. In Viet Nam, heroin abusers accounted for 83.1 per cent of the total drug-abusing population. In Singapore, similar to the situation in 2008, heroin abusers accounted for 58 per cent of the drug abusers arrested in 2009. In China, which has the largest illicit market for opioids in the region, opioid abuse is estimated to involve between 1.8 million and 2.9 million persons and heroin abuse is the primary reason for seeking
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treatment for drug abuse. In 2009, 97,000 new heroin abusers were registered in China, bringing the total to 978,226.
549. As in some other countries in East and South-East Asia, drug abuse by injection has been widespread in Viet Nam and remains a major means of HIV transmission. It is estimated that in Viet Nam persons who abuse drugs by injection account for over 80 per cent of the drug-abusing population. In Malaysia, the National Strategic Plan on HIV/AIDS for 2006-2010 included needle and syringe exchange programmes to reduce HIV transmission. In 2009, the design and implementation of the HIV/AIDS Asia Regional Programme, funded by the Australian Agency for International Development, continued to be carried out in the Lao People’s Democratic Republic and Myanmar with the goal of reducing over a period of five years the prevalence of HIV infection transmitted through drug abuse by injection.
550. In Myanmar, two new programmes for methadone maintenance therapy were launched in early 2010, one at the general hospital in Muse, where persons who abuse drugs by injection were offered treatment with the assistance of a psychiatrist, and the other at the general hospital of Tachilek, where a physician was assigned to handle methadone treatment authorized by the Department of Health. The Board notes that other countries in East and South-East Asia, in particular China, Indonesia, Malaysia and Viet Nam, have recently initiated or scaled up methadone maintenance programmes or expanded the coverage of such programmes to include additional segments of the population.
551. The Lao authorities estimated that there were between 12,000 and 15,000 opium addicts, mostly in the northern provinces, although more precise data on the number of drug addicts in the country were not available. In Mongolia, many patients hospitalized for trauma or other painful conditions became addicted to morphine when excessive doses of the narcotic analgesic were prescribed.
552. The abuse of amphetamine-type stimulants, especially among young people, was on the rise in many countries. All countries in East and South-East Asia reported the abuse of methamphetamine, with nine countries reporting it as the most common or second most common drug of abuse, depending on its form. Increasing abuse of methamphetamine has been reported in Cambodia, China, Indonesia, the Lao People’s Democratic Republic, Malaysia, Myanmar, Singapore, Thailand and Viet Nam. According to UNODC, methamphetamine was the main drug of abuse in the Lao People’s Democratic Republic and Thailand and the second most commonly abused drug in Cambodia and China. Crystalline methamphetamine was reported to be the primary drug of abuse in Brunei Darussalam, Japan and the Republic of Korea. In Brunei Darussalam in 2009, methamphetamine was the drug of choice for 97 per cent of drug abusers. In China, the number of registered abusers of amphetamine-type stimulants reached 360,000, of whom 97,000 were newly registered. In the Lao People’s Democratic Republic, the number of people addicted to amphetamine-type stimulants was estimated at 35,000-40,000. Malaysia is at risk of becoming a major illicit market for amphetamine-type stimulants, as large amounts of those stimulants have been smuggled into the country.
553. MDMA (“ecstasy”) was not reported as the most common drug of abuse in any country in East and South-East Asia; however, it was the second most common drug of abuse in Indonesia and the third most common in many countries in the region, including China, where it ranked after heroin and methamphetamine. In Viet Nam, “ecstasy” has been identified as a new drug of abuse.
554. Recent surveys in the Lao People’s Democratic Republic and Thailand have drawn attention to the widespread abuse of volatile substances such as glue, primarily by children and teenagers. The abuse of inhalants is also a problem in other countries in East and South-East Asia, such as Mongolia.
555. In accordance with the international drug control conventions, physical and mental health problems related to drug abuse should be evaluated and treated, and support for social integration and employment provided to those in need. Research has indicated that effective treatment for drug dependence responds to individual needs and reaches those who are not motivated to attend treatment facilities. Unfortunately, those principles often were not or could not be followed by Governments in East and South-East Asia. The practice of making treatment at centres compulsory for drug abusers seems to be increasing in the region.
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556. The Board wishes to highlight the importance of providing assistance in response to drug abuse and HIV prevention, treatment, support and care among persons who abuse drugs by injection and among prison inmates in East and South-East Asia. In 2009, capacity-building for the treatment of drug dependence was carried out in Cambodia, Myanmar and Viet Nam, and counselling clinics and community counselling teams for drug abusers were established.
South Asia
1. Major developments
557. South Asia has become one of the main regions used by drug traffickers to obtain ephedrine and pseudoephedrine for the illicit manufacture of methamphetamine. Indian law enforcement authorities continue to report significant seizures of these precursor chemicals. In addition to being diverted from the licit manufacturing industry in India, those precursor chemicals are manufactured illicitly, as indicated by the discovery of a clandestine ephedrine laboratory in 2009. To circumvent measures in place in India to control domestic and international trade in bulk ephedrine and pseudoephedrine, criminal networks have resorted to smuggling pharmaceutical preparations containing those chemicals. In addition, drug traffickers have begun using Bangladesh to obtain large quantities of such preparations.
558. Law enforcement agencies in India continue to uncover clandestine facilities where methamphetamine is illicitly manufactured. This indicates that India is being used by criminal networks for the illicit manufacture of amphetamine-type stimulants. There are reports that most of the methamphetamine manufactured in clandestine laboratories in India is destined for illicit markets in other countries. The prevalence of abuse of amphetamine-type stimulants in India is not known.
559. The    diversion    into    illicit    channels    of
pharmaceutical preparations containing substances under international control, as well as the smuggling of such preparations, continues to pose problems in South Asia. Law enforcement agencies of Bhutan, India and Nepal often seize pharmaceutical preparations containing codeine.    Seizures of
pharmaceutical preparations containing buprenorphine have increased in recent years in Bangladesh. Furthermore, many drug abusers in South Asia inject pharmaceutical preparations containing dextropropoxyphene or buprenorphine. Concerted efforts at the national and regional levels are needed to deal with that situation.
560. High rates of HIV infection are reported among people who abuse drugs by injection in some cities, such as Dhaka, and in the north-eastern states of India. One response to this problem has been the introduction and expansion of opioid substitution treatment programmes in several countries in the region in recent years. Pilot studies on the use of methadone in such programmes have been initiated in Bangladesh and Maldives and officially approved in India. The opening of additional facilities that provide opioid substitution treatment using methadone is planned in Nepal. In India, measures are being implemented to harmonize the quality and improve the efficacy of opioid substitution    treatment programmes    that    use
buprenorphine.
561. Ketamine, a substance not under international control that is increasingly being abused in East and South-East Asia, was previously reported to originate in China and other countries in that region. In recent years, however, ketamine of Indian origin has been smuggled into countries in East and South-East Asia. In India, the number of large seizures of ketamine has increased. In addition, there has been an increasing number of shipments of ketamine originating in India and illegally imported into other countries.
2. Regional cooperation
562. The tenth in a series of talks at the level of Home Secretary between Bangladesh and India was held in New Delhi in November 2009. Draft bilateral agreements on mutual legal assistance in criminal matters and on combating international terrorism, organized crime and drug trafficking were finalized during those talks.
563. In December 2009, the ministers for foreign affairs of Bangladesh, Bhutan, India and Sri Lanka participated in the twelfth ministerial meeting among States involved in the Bay of Bengal Initiative for Multi-Sectoral Technical and Economic Cooperation (BIMSTEC). The ministers signed the BIMSTEC Convention on Combating International Terrorism, Transnational Organized Crime and Illicit Drug
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Trafficking, aimed at strengthening mutual assistance in investigating and suppressing transnational organized crime and prosecuting offenders in cases involving such crime.
564. Also in December 2009, Bhutan and India signed a memorandum of understanding on drug demand reduction and the prevention of trafficking in narcotic drugs, psychotropic substances and precursor chemicals and related matters. The first meeting of a coordination committee composed of drug control officials from the two countries was held in Thimphu in June 2010 to discuss the implementation of the memorandum.
565. In January 2010, the prime ministers of Bangladesh and India signed the Agreement on Combating International Terrorism, Organized Crime and Illicit Drug Trafficking. Pursuant to the agreement, a coordination committee composed of representatives of law enforcement and intelligence agencies of the two countries was established to extend cooperation in the prevention and investigation and trial of criminal offences such as drug smuggling.
566. The secretaries of the interior of India and Myanmar held a meeting in Nay Pyi Taw in January 2010 and a meeting in Tawang, India, in June 2010, focusing on cooperation to prevent transnational organized crime and on measures to prevent the smuggling of narcotic drugs and arms across the border between India and Myanmar.
567. At the third meeting of ministers of the interior of States members of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC), held in Islamabad in June 2010, participants discussed possible measures to strengthen regional cooperation to combat terrorism, trafficking in persons and drug smuggling, including the formation of a regional police agency. Also in June, and in preparation for the SAARC meeting, the SAARC Drug Offences Monitoring Desk held a meeting at which participants emphasized the need for a border control management system in the region to be used to counter the smuggling of narcotic drugs and weapons.
3. National legislation, policy and action
568. National seminars on the abuse of pharmaceutical preparations containing controlled substances were organized by UNODC in each of the six South Asian countries between May and December 2009. The seminars, which brought together medical practitioners and representatives from drug law enforcement agencies and the pharmaceutical industry, provided a forum for participants to discuss aspects of the legal, regulatory and law enforcement systems that should be strengthened in order to stem the widespread abuse of pharmaceutical preparations in the region. The Board encourages States in the region to implement the measures necessary to curb the abuse of and trafficking in pharmaceutical preparations containing controlled substances.
569. The National Consultative Committee on De-addiction and Rehabilitation Services of India is formulating a national policy for the prevention of alcoholism and substance abuse and the rehabilitation of victims of such abuse. The National Consultative Committee, which operates under the chairmanship of the Minister of Social Justice and Empowerment, was constituted in 2008 to advise the Government of India on matters related to the reduction of the illicit demand for drugs.
570. In August 2009, the drug control regulations of the State of Andhra Pradesh, India, were amended to facilitate access to morphine for medical purposes. The elaborate system of licensing in place in many states of India can make it difficult for health facilities to obtain morphine for medical purposes. In 1998, the Government of India issued simplified regulations for the provision of morphine and requested states to adopt them. Of the 28 states of India, Andhra Pradesh is the fourteenth to have complied with that request. The Board encourages the Government of India to continue to promote the adoption and implementation by states of the simplified regulations so as to improve the availability of morphine in the country.
571. In March 2010, new administrative arrangements were established for allocating quotas for the manufacture of narcotic drugs in India with the aim of promoting the submission of accurate statistics and estimates to the Board. Previously, quotas were allocated to states by the central drug controller and were then distributed to individual manufacturers by the state drug controllers. The decentralized system made it cumbersome to collect from manufacturers data on narcotic drugs that must be submitted to the International Narcotics Control Board. Under the new arrangements, the authority to allocate quotas to
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manufacturers and to collect the requisite data has been transferred to the Narcotics Commissioner of India.
572. In June 2010, the Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment of India launched a new module on drug abuse prevention for out-of-school children aimed at providing guidance to non-governmental organizations working in that area. The module was prepared by the Ministry in collaboration with UNODC as part of a project to develop national programmes for preventing and raising awareness about drug abuse.
573. To devise a comprehensive action plan for combating the drug-related problems, the Government of Maldives organized a conference entitled “Maldives: Towards a Future without Drugs”. The conference, which was held in Male from 15 to 17 August 2009, brought together stakeholders from all segments of society, including legal experts, service providers, law enforcement officers, policymakers, recovering drug abusers and representatives from the private sector and international organizations.
574. In January 2010, the Government of Maldives signed a memorandum of understanding with UNODC on technical cooperation to implement a programme on strengthening the national response to combat drug abuse. The programme, supported financially by the European Union and UNODC, aims to enhance capacity for drug abuse prevention and treatment in Maldives. The Board notes with satisfaction the continued efforts of the Government of Maldives to address the growing problem of drug abuse.
575. In April 2010, a workshop on the development of comprehensive drug abuse prevention programmes in schools was organized in Male in the framework of the Drug Advisory Programme of the Colombo Plan for Cooperative Economic and Social Development in Asia and the Pacific. Teachers attending the workshop received training on integrating drug abuse prevention and life-skills education into school curricula.
576. Act 1 of 2008 of the Convention against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances of Sri Lanka came into force in June 2009. The act translates into national law the provisions of the 1988 Convention, to which Sri Lanka became a party in 1991.
577. In June 2010, a campaign to raise young people’s awareness about the dangers of drug abuse was organized in Colombo by the National Dangerous
Drugs Control Board of Sri Lanka in collaboration with the Secretariat of the Colombo Plan. The campaign included a ceremony during which each of the participants pledged to live a life free of drug abuse.
4. Cultivation, production, manufacture and trafficking
Narcotic drugs
578. Cannabis plants are illicitly cultivated on a large scale throughout South Asia, contributing to the trafficking in cannabis herb and cannabis resin. In 2009, law enforcement authorities in Bangladesh seized 2.1 tons of cannabis herb. In June 2009, the Government of Bhutan organized an eradication campaign that resulted in the destruction of about 2.5 ha of illicitly cultivated cannabis plants. In the same year, law enforcement authorities of India eradicated 4,883 ha of illicitly cultivated cannabis plants, about three times more than in 2008. In addition, 171 tons of cannabis herb and 3.5 tons of cannabis resin were seized in that country in 2009. In Nepal, the authorities eradicated at least 62 ha of illicitly cultivated cannabis plants and seized 16 tons of cannabis in 2009. The Government of Sri Lanka reported that in 2009 the total area under illicit cannabis plant cultivation was about 500 ha and that about 8.6 tons of cannabis had been seized in the country.
579. Opium poppy is illicitly cultivated in Bangladesh, India and Nepal. Opium poppy eradication campaigns are frequently carried out by the drug law enforcement authorities of those countries. In 2009, such campaigns resulted in the eradication of 2,448 ha of illicitly cultivated opium poppy in India and 35 ha in Nepal. In addition, the seizure of about 1.45 million opium poppy plants was reported by Bangladesh.
580. Trafficking in heroin, morphine and opium continues to pose problems in India, where, in 2009, a total of 1,045 kg of heroin, 42 kg of morphine and 1,732 kg of opium were seized. Furthermore, drug law enforcement authorities reported seizures of more than 4.5 tons of poppy straw. Locally produced low-grade heroin base known as “brown sugar” is abused in India and is also smuggled into other countries in South Asia; higher-grade heroin is smuggled through the region from Afghanistan and Myanmar. Courier and postal services continue to be widely used to smuggle
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heroin from India. In 2009, about 21 kg of heroin were seized in Bangladesh, more than 14 kg were seized in Nepal and 34 kg were seized in Sri Lanka.
581. Pharmaceutical preparations containing narcotic drugs and psychotropic substances are widely abused in South Asian countries. India, a country with a large pharmaceutical industry, is the main manufacturer of such preparations, which are smuggled through the porous borders that India shares with neighbouring countries. In Bhutan, authorities continue to make frequent seizures of pharmaceutical preparations containing    dextropropoxyphene    and    codeine
originating in India. In 2009, law enforcement authorities in Bangladesh seized 58,875 bottles containing 174 litres of codeine-based syrup, 92 ampoules containing pethidine and morphine and 1,617 tablets containing codeine. In Nepal, seizures of tablets containing codeine have increased in recent years. Factors contributing to the diversion of and trafficking in pharmaceutical preparations in the region include inadequate regulation of manufacturers, lax prescription and dispensing practices, an insufficient number of trained pharmacists, the presence of an unregulated market in some countries and weak border controls.
Psychotropic substances
582. Seizures    of    pharmaceutical    preparations
containing buprenorphine have increased significantly in recent years in Bangladesh. In 2009, law enforcement authorities reported the seizure of 18,600 ampoules containing buprenorphine, equivalent to more than 10 times the total quantity seized in 2006 and about 4 times the quantity seized in 2007. The seizure of 4,051 tablets known as “yaba”, containing caffeine and methamphetamine, was also reported in 2009.
583. India is one of the main sources of psychotropic substances sold through illegally operating Internet pharmacies. In 2009, the drug law enforcement authorities of India reported having seized more than
1 kg of alprazolam and about 31,000 tablets of diazepam, phentermine and zolpidem. The tablets were found inside a parcel that was about to be dispatched through courier services. In addition, 5 kg of diazepam destined for London were seized in March 2010 and
2 kg of alprazolam were seized in May 2010.
584. In recent years, law enforcement agencies in India have uncovered several laboratories illicitly manufacturing methamphetamine. In June 2009, the seizure of 28 kg of methamphetamine led to the discovery of facilities used for the illicit manufacture of that substance in the State of Punjab. In January 2010, a methamphetamine laboratory was dismantled in the State of Himachal Pradesh and 18 kg of methamphetamine were seized on the premises. In August 2010, law enforcement agencies discovered two clandestine methamphetamine laboratories in Mumbai, India, and seized large quantities of methamphetamine and its precursors ephedrine and pseudoephedrine on the premises.
585. The total amount of amphetamine seized by law enforcement authorities in India more than doubled between 2008 and 2009, reaching 41 kg in 2009.
Precursor chemicals
586. Seizures of acetic anhydride continue to be made in India. In 2009, about 1,038 litres of that chemical were seized, representing about one third of the amount seized in the previous year.
587. In India, ephedrine and pseudoephedrine, which are used in the illicit manufacture of amphetamine-type stimulants, are either diverted from the licit manufacturing industry or produced illicitly. In November 2009, Indian law enforcement agencies dismantled a laboratory where ephedrine had been illicitly manufactured, seizing 82.5 kg of ephedrine on the premises. In the course of 2009, a total of 1.2 tons of ephedrine were seized in India. In 2009, there were reports of large shipments of ephedrine and pseudoephedrine tablets originating in India that were seized while being smuggled through countries in Central America and South America and that had been destined for Mexico, where methamphetamine is illicitly manufactured on a large scale.
588. Criminal networks are increasingly targeting Bangladesh as a source of pharmaceutical preparations containing pseudoephedrine. Pseudoephedrine from India is formed into tablets in Bangladesh before being sent to countries in Central America and the Caribbean. Examples of large seizures of pseudoephedrine tablets originating in Bangladesh in 2009 include the seizure of more than 2 million tablets in Honduras and the seizure of about 400,000 tablets in the Dominican Republic.
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Substances not under international control
589. India has become one of the main sources of ketamine that is smuggled into East and South-East Asia, where there is high demand for the substance among drug abusers. In 2009, more than 1 ton of ketamine was seized in India. Ketamine shipments have been uncovered at several major airports in India, in sea containers and in parcels sent through courier or postal services. The number and size of the ketamine seizures made in India and of the seized shipments of ketamine originating in India have increased significantly in recent years. Two large seizures of ketamine, weighing 300 and 440 kg, were made in India during the last two months of 2009. In December 2009, 147 kg of ketamine were seized at Port Klang, Malaysia, in a sea container originating in India. In January 2010, a shipment of 254 kg of ketamine destined for Taiwan Province of China was seized in Bangalore, India. The Board urges the Government of India to strengthen measures to prevent the smuggling of ketamine from its territory.
5. Abuse and treatment
590. In Bangladesh, treatment services for drug abusers are provided by the Government in four treatment centres and at three institutions operating within the prison system. Buprenorphine, cannabis and heroin are the substances most commonly reported as the main drug of abuse among patients registered in governmental treatment facilities. In 2009, 3,793 patients, only four of whom were women, were treated for drug abuse by the Government.
591. The first national baseline survey of drug abuse in Bhutan was conducted in 2009 by the Bhutan Narcotic Control Agency in collaboration with the Ministry of Health and UNODC. The survey was based on interviews with 991 drug abusers from 14 districts and on questionnaires completed by 20,757 students in
60 schools throughout the country. Among the drug abusers interviewed outside the school setting, the lifetime prevalence rates were 96 per cent for cannabis abuse and 14 per cent for heroin abuse. The lifetime prevalence rates for the abuse of pharmaceutical preparations containing codeine, nitrazepam and dextropropoxyphene were 47 per cent, 34 per cent and
61 per cent, respectively. Of the drug abusers,
11 per cent reported having abused by injection either
heroin or heroin in combination with buprenorphine
and dextropropoxyphene. Among students, lifetime prevalence of abuse of cannabis was 9.7 per cent, whereas the prevalence rates for daily abuse of cannabis and pharmaceutical preparations were 0.6 per cent and 0.3 per cent, respectively.
592. In Bhutan, drug abusers can receive detoxification treatment in the psychiatric ward of a major hospital in Thimphu. The Government also operates four drop-in centres for drug and alcohol abusers that provide information about drug abuse, as well as peer-led counselling and referrals to medical facilities. In August 2009, the Government opened a treatment and rehabilitation centre for drug and alcohol dependents in Thimphu, the first of its kind in the country. In addition, guidelines on the operation of treatment and rehabilitation centres and drop-in centres were published by the Government. The Board notes with satisfaction the progress made in providing treatment services for drug abusers in Bhutan.
593. The latest national household survey in India was conducted during 2000 and 2001; more recent information on national prevalence of drug abuse is not available. In 2008, the National Sample Survey Office of India was tasked with undertaking a national survey on drug abuse. The office produced a report on methodology for the national survey in 2009 and initiated pilot surveys in selected states at the beginning of 2010. The Board notes with satisfaction the steps taken by the Government of India towards obtaining up-to-date information about the national prevalence of drug abuse.
594. In India, treatment and rehabilitation services for drug abuse are mainly provided by non-governmental organizations, which operate 376 treatment and rehabilitation centres and 68 counselling and awareness-raising centres nationwide. In 2008 and 2009, about US$ 5 million were allocated by the Government to support those organizations under the Scheme of Assistance for Prevention of Alcoholism and Substance (Drug) Abuse and for Social Defence Services. In 2009, the Government also published a manual of minimum standards for programmes to provide guidance to organizations funded through the Scheme.
595. In Sri Lanka, cannabis, heroin and opium are the most frequently abused drugs. In 2009, 2,975 patients were admitted for drug abuse treatment: 80 per cent of the patients received treatment at one of four treatment
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centres operated by the Government of Sri Lanka, 18 per cent were admitted to treatment programmes operating within the prison system and 2 per cent received treatment through rehabilitation programmes operated by a number of non-governmental organizations.
596. In India, opioid substitution treatment using buprenorphine is currently available to 4,800 drug abusers in 52 centres operated by non-governmental organizations. To increase and harmonize the quality of services provided to drug abusers, the Government has developed guidelines on standard operating procedures for substitution treatment using buprenorphine and an accreditation procedure for facilities providing such treatment to drug abusers. A curriculum for training health professionals in opioid substitution treatment is being developed in cooperation with UNODC.
597. Several countries in South Asia are planning to initiate or expand programmes to provide opioid substitution treatment using methadone. In Bangladesh, a one-year pilot study with 300 patients, conducted in collaboration with UNODC, was initiated in July 2010. In 2009, the Government of India approved a pilot programme to study the efficacy of substitution treatment using methadone that will be implemented in five health facilities across the country in collaboration with UNODC. In Nepal, substitution treatment using methadone is provided by the Government to about 250 drug abusers, and two new centres serving 300 new patients will open in 2010.
West Asia
1. Major developments
598. In West Asia, the total area under illicit opium poppy cultivation, after decreasing in 2008 and 2009, remained stable in 2010 at 123,000 ha, but illicit opium production declined to almost half the quantity reported for 2009. That sharp decline was due to lower yields per hectare, a consequence of a fungus affecting opium poppy plants, frost and drought. The number of Afghan provinces free of opium poppy remained unchanged in 2010. However, as opium prices are rising sharply, there is a risk that Afghan farmers may choose to grow more opium poppy in 2011.
599. In 2010, the Government of Afghanistan, with the support of UNODC, completed a survey of drug use in
Afghanistan and a survey on cannabis production. The 2009 Afghanistan drug use survey found that illicit drug use has increased across the country, with dramatic increases in the abuse of opium, heroin and other opiates. There are nearly 1 million drug abusers among the population of Afghanistan aged 15-64. Compared with the findings of a survey conducted in 2005, opium use increased by 53 per cent, while heroin use increased by 140 per cent. According to the first-ever survey of cannabis in Afghanistan, 39 conducted by UNODC in 2009, Afghanistan could be the world’s largest producer of cannabis resin (“hashish”). Up to 630,000 adults in Afghanistan, mostly men, use cannabis on a regular basis.
600. The southern Caucasus is increasingly being used as a transit area for consignments of opiates from Afghanistan, and as a result, drug abuse is on the rise in the subregion. Given the long borders that countries of that subregion share with Iran (Islamic Republic of), the Russian Federation and Turkey and their access to the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea, the Board remains concerned that the situation with regard to drug trafficking and abuse in Armenia, Azerbaijan and Georgia may continue to deteriorate unless increased attention is given to information-sharing, more efficient border control, drug demand reduction and regional and national coordination of drug control activities.
601. Various sources indicate that cannabis plants continue to be illicitly cultivated in Iraq and the Bekaa valley of Lebanon, although recent eradication efforts, coupled with campaigns to discourage new cultivation of cannabis plants, have led to positive results in Lebanon. Various reports show an increase in drug abuse and drug-related cases and arrests, mainly involving cannabis, heroin and so-called Captagon tablets, in countries in that area.
602. Although information on trends is limited owing to a lack of appropriate systems for monitoring drug abuse, the drug abuse situation in the Middle East is undoubtedly worsening, and abuse of all kinds of drugs has become a growing problem, as shown by indirect indicators such as HIV and hepatitis C infection rates, which are increasing in the region, particularly among
39 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Afghanistan Cannabis Survey 2009 (April 2010).
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persons who abuse drugs by injection and the prison population.
603. In the Islamic Republic of Iran, the illicit traffic in methamphetamine appears to have reversed direction. In the period 2007-2008, methamphetamine was smuggled into the Islamic Republic of Iran from China and Malaysia; in 2008, methamphetamine was smuggled out of the country to countries such as Indonesia, Japan, Malaysia, New Zealand and Thailand.
604. Non-medical use of prescription drugs, in particular tranquillizers and sleeping tablets, is increasing in some countries in the Middle East. Substances    often    reported    to    have    been
obtained without the required medical prescription include preparations containing methylphenidate, pseudoephedrine, tramadol and benzodiazepines such as diazepam.
605. According to the World Custom Organization, large seizures of khat have been reported in the subregion, in particular in Qatar, where the biggest seizure, amounting to 3 tons, was detected in a road freight consignment arriving from Kuwait.
2. Regional cooperation
606. The main outcome of the London Conference on Afghanistan, held on 28 January 2010, with the participation of more than 70 countries and international organizations, was the call for Afghan ownership and leadership in implementing the strategy in the areas of security, economic development, governance and counter-narcotics. Participants in the conference emphasized, among other things, the links existing between trafficking in narcotic drugs, the insurgency and other criminal activities, including corruption and trafficking in persons. In that connection, participants welcomed the updating of the National Drug Control Strategy by the Government of Afghanistan, the continuation of the “Paris-Moscow” process in countering the illicit production and consumption of and trafficking in narcotic drugs and the elimination of opium poppy crops and illicit drug laboratories and storage facilities, and welcomed the “whole-of-government” approach taken by the Government of Afghanistan in fighting corruption.
607. The special conference on Afghanistan held in Moscow on 27 March 2010, under the auspices of the
Shanghai Cooperation Organization, focused on the impact that the situation in Afghanistan has on neighbouring countries and on identifying ways to jointly confront regional threats such as terrorism, drug trafficking and organized crime. Conference participants included ministers of the States members of the Shanghai Cooperation Organization and representatives of States members of the Group of Eight, Iran (Islamic Republic of), Turkey and Turkmenistan, the United Nations, the Collective Security Treaty Organization (CSTO), the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE), the European Union and the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). Participants in the conference recognized that, as a direct result of the inability of the Government of Afghanistan to control its borders, Iran (Islamic Republic of), Pakistan and countries of Central Asia, through which Afghan opiates are predominantly smuggled, face a wide range of problems related to large-scale drug trafficking, such as organized crime, corruption and the highest rates of abuse of opiates in the world.
608. An international forum entitled “Drug Production in Afghanistan: A Challenge to the International Community” was held in Moscow on 9 and 10 June 2010. The President of the Russian Federation opened the forum, which was attended by heads of national drug control and law enforcement agencies, national experts and representatives from international organizations, CSTO, NATO and the Shanghai Cooperation Organization. The forum focused on stepping up the fight against trafficking in drugs from Afghanistan. The President of the Board and the Executive Director of UNODC addressed the forum.
609. The international Kabul Conference held on 20 July 2010 brought together representatives of more than 60 States, including 40 ministers for foreign affairs, and 11 regional and international organizations to discuss Afghanistan’s development, governance and stability, deliberate and endorse 15 national priority programmes for socio-economic development and increasingly transfer greater responsibility for the management of funds to the Afghan Administration. The Kabul Conference was the first international meeting on Afghanistan held in the country. Subsequent to the Conference, the Ministry of Counter-Narcotics of Afghanistan is updating the National Drug Control Strategy. The Board supports this Afghanistan-led process, which is aimed at accelerating Afghan
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leadership and ownership, strengthening international partnerships and regional cooperation, improving governance in Afghanistan.
610. The Governments of Afghanistan, Iran (Islamic Republic of) and Pakistan are intensifying their regional cooperation through the Triangular Initiative, aimed at joint implementation of the strategic policy outline, developed by UNODC, through projects for joint border cooperation. On 4 August 2010, representatives of the competent authorities of Afghanistan, Iran (Islamic Republic of) and Pakistan met in Tehran for the fourth meeting of senior officials. The topics of discussion included joint and simultaneous operations of the Joint Planning Cell, establishment of border liaison offices and lessons learned from the pilot border liaison offices in Afghanistan, Iran (Islamic Republic of) and Pakistan. Meeting participants examined the current status of cross-border communications, including the results of the fourth cross-border communications expert meeting, held in Tehran on 25 and 26 May 2010.
611. At a meeting in Doha in February 2010, the heads of the drug law enforcement agencies of Iran (Islamic Republic of) and Qatar emphasized the expansion of mutual cooperation in fighting drug trafficking. Both sides expressed their readiness to continue and deepen cooperation between the two countries at the expert level and to exchange intelligence.
612. In November 2009, the Governments of Afghanistan and Pakistan met in Kabul to review progress made under the Dubai Process, an initiative facilitated by the Government of Canada and aimed at increasing cooperation between Afghanistan and Pakistan in key areas including counter-narcotics. The discussion focused mainly on activities related to border liaison offices, precursor chemicals, treatment for drug abuse, community engagement, joint operations and equipment and training. In April 2010, at a follow-up session of the Dubai Process, the Governments of Afghanistan and Pakistan reviewed the status of the modernization of key border crossing points as part of the development of a comprehensive border management strategy.
613. Governments of countries in Central Asia are increasing their bilateral and multilateral cooperation in areas such as the reduction of illicit drug supply and demand, precursor control, border management, countering the spread of HIV/AIDS and fighting organized crime and money-laundering. They have also been participating in various regional projects and international operations under the auspices of the Commonwealth of Independent States, CSTO, the Shanghai Cooperation Organization and the States signatories of the 1996 Memorandum of Understanding on Subregional Drug Control Cooperation (Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, the Russian Federation, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan). Similarly, an increasing number of joint programmes are being implemented and supported by the United Nations, the European Union, OSCE, the World Bank, the World Customs Organization, INTERPOL, the Paris Pact Policy Consultative Group, the NATO-Russia Council, mini-Dublin groups and individual Governments.
614. Following the entry into force of the framework agreement on the establishment of the Central Asian Regional Information and Coordination Centre (CARICC), in 2010, Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, the Russian Federation, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan continued their cooperation in countering trafficking in narcotic drugs, psychotropic substances and precursors. The Board encourages the Governments involved to further enhance their joint activities and to include other countries in West Asia and the Caucasus, in order to ensure greater cooperation in collecting, exchanging and analysing drug-related intelligence, organizing and coordinating joint operations, promoting training and carrying out other efforts to reduce illicit drug supply in West Asia.
615. A meeting organized within the framework of the second phase of the UNODC operation called Targeted Anti-trafficking Regional Communication, Expertise and Training (Operation TARCET) was held in Almaty, Kazakhstan, on 30 and 31 March 2010. The meeting was hosted by CARICC. The main objectives of the second phase of the operation (TARCET II) were to reveal and dismantle channels for the smuggling of precursors to Afghanistan. During the operation, the competent authorities of Afghanistan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan and Pakistan and the International Security Assistance Force in Afghanistan seized more than 440 tons of precursors under international control.
616. The exchange of operational information is essential for the successful apprehension of members of drug trafficking organizations, and joint measures taken by the Governments of countries in West Asia to
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combat drug trafficking have continued to produce good results. In 2009, there were numerous meetings and joint operations with Turkey and other countries in the region such as Iran (Islamic Republic of) and the Syrian Arab Republic, as well as with European countries such as Bulgaria, Germany and the Netherlands.
617. The Governments of 18 Arab countries are working with UNODC on the development and implementation of a regional programme framework to address problems related to drugs and crime for the period 2011-2015. The programme was reviewed at a regional expert group meeting held in Egypt in April 2010, organized jointly with the League of Arab States and the Government of Egypt. The main objectives of the programme are countering trafficking, organized crime and terrorism; promoting integrity and strengthening justice systems; and drug abuse prevention and health. The regional programme will be presented to the Ministerial Council of the League of Arab States at the end of 2010 for adoption.
618. A regional forum for 16 countries of the Middle East and North Africa, hosted by the United Arab Emirates, was held in Dubai in June 2010. The main objective of the forum was to enhance cooperation among law enforcement agencies and treatment centres in the region. At the meeting, participants adopted a set of recommendations, shared with the Council of Arab Ministers of the Interior, and highlighted the importance of the establishment and implementation of shared training programmes for law enforcement officers, in the areas of border control, sharing of intelligence and controlled deliveries.
619. Enhanced cooperation in the form of meetings and the exchange of information and involving countries such as Jordan, Saudi Arabia, the Syrian Arab Republic and Turkey has proved effective, resulting in significant drug seizures in 2009. Joint operations involving Iran (Islamic Republic of) and Turkey have led to important seizures of heroin. In a similar fashion, cooperation between the Syrian Arab Republic and Turkey has proved effective in countering trafficking in cannabis originating in the Syrian Arab Republic. Controlled deliveries involving Jordanian authorities and their counterparts in Saudi Arabia and the Syrian Arab Republic have resulted in significant drug seizures.
620. At its twenty-seventh session, held in Tunisia in March 2010, the Council of Arab Ministers of the Interior approved phased plans for the implementation of joint strategies to fight illicit drug use, terrorism, corruption, money-laundering,    cybercrime and
transnational organized crime. The Council recognized the threat posed to the region by drug trafficking and organized crime and reaffirmed the necessity of unifying their efforts and the need to develop security techniques and enhance regional and international cooperation.
621. The Board notes with appreciation the establishment in Doha by the Cooperation Council for the Arab States of the Gulf of a criminal information centre for combating drug-related problems. The centre, which will be opened by the end of 2010, is to reinforce the concerted efforts of member States of the Cooperation Council to support work in areas such as preventing the spread of drug abuse.
3. National legislation, policy and action
622. The Government of Pakistan has approved a new drug control policy for 2010 in an effort to re-energize existing drug law enforcement institutions. The new policy seeks to promote international cooperation and regional partnership in tackling drug-related problems and emphasizes the need to control the problem at the source, in countries where opium poppy is grown. The strategy states that socio-economic factors should be taken into consideration and be addressed through rapid industrialization and the establishment of alternative development projects in areas where opium poppy is grown. The new policy aims to strengthen law enforcement agencies and streamline their activities and, at the same time, to enhance drug demand reduction and prevention efforts through education and community mobilization campaigns. The new policy also envisages the development of systems to provide effective and accessible treatment and rehabilitation for drug abusers and the conduct of a survey to determine the prevalence of drug abuse in the country.
623. In 2009, the Government of Jordan enacted a new regulation on prescriptions and records for narcotic drugs, psychotropic substances and preparations containing controlled substances that are used in hospitals and specialized clinics. Similar administrative measures were taken in Bahrain. The authorities of Bahrain established drug control offices in various
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parts of the country, enhanced collaboration with drug law enforcement agencies of Arab countries through joint training sessions held within national structures. At the national level, the authorities organized various exhibitions and lectures in order to raise public awareness of the danger of drug abuse.
624. In Iraq, the Ministry of Health has established a national drug control committee, headed by the Minister of Health, which will act as a coordinating body for drug control activities carried out by the ministries of the interior, education, justice and labour. A database will be established for collection of information from health institutions. Drug control legislation prepared by the Ministry of Health is in the process of adoption by the Parliament. The Board welcomes those positive developments in drug control in Iraq and encourages the Government to take further steps to ensure that a national drug control strategy is developed and implemented as soon as possible.
625. Ten years ago, the Board, having determined that Afghanistan had become by far the world’s largest illicit producer of opium and that that situation seriously endangered the aims of the 1961 Convention, invoked article 14 of that Convention with respect to Afghanistan, calling the attention of the States parties to the 1961 Convention, the Economic and Social Council and the Commission on Narcotic Drugs to the grave situation in Afghanistan. The Board stresses that limited progress has been made in the past decade in eliminating the impact of Afghan opium. Effective action to counter the threat posed by Afghan opium and to support the Government of Afghanistan requires close regional cooperation and a coalition of all forces at the national, regional and international levels. The Board recognizes that addressing the serious situation in Afghanistan should not be the burden of the Government of Afghanistan alone: it should be a shared responsibility, and it requires the full support and cooperative action of the international community.
4. Cultivation, production, manufacture and trafficking
Narcotic drugs
626. According to the Afghanistan Opium Survey 2010: Summary Findings, published by UNODC in September 2010, the illicit cultivation of opium poppy in Afghanistan in 2010 remained at the same level as in 2009. However, in 2010, the spread of a disease that affected opium poppy plants in the main growing provinces resulted in the yield per hectare declining sharply, by 48 per cent compared with 2009, and illicit opium production decreasing to 3,600 tons, slightly more than half the quantity reported for 2009.
627. Almost all of the illicit opium poppy cultivation in Afghanistan remained concentrated in the southern and western parts of the country. Helmand remained the province with the largest area under illicit opium poppy cultivation in 2010, accounting for 53 per cent of the total area under such cultivation; it was followed by Kandahar (21 per cent). The number of provinces free of opium poppy in 2010 was the same as in 2009 (20 provinces), and the northern region maintained the poppy-free status it had achieved in 2009.
628. As of March 2010, there was an increase in prices of fresh and dry opium, both at the farm-gate level and at the trader level in Afghanistan. According to UNODC, the national average price for dry opium in Afghanistan at the farm-gate level in September 2010 reached US$ 207 per kilogram. That represents a marked increase compared with the price in September 2009 (US$ 78 per kilogram) and the highest price since December 2004.
629. UNODC estimated that at the end of 2009, opium stockpiles in Afghanistan and neighbouring countries totalled some 12,000 tons, equivalent to 2.5 years of global illicit demand for opiates. The fact that illicit opium production decreased significantly in 2010 does not mean that illicit heroin manufacture will also fall by any significant amount, as there are sufficient stocks of opium available.
630. There remains a strong link between security conditions and illicit opium poppy cultivation in the southern provinces of Afghanistan. Information collected by UNODC indicates that the overwhelming majority of villages with poor security are involved in such cultivation. Drug traffickers and other criminal groups encourage villagers to grow opium poppy, ensuring the protection of their opium poppy fields and, in some cases, using threats and intimidation to force the villagers to engage in illicit opium poppy cultivation.
631. Information released by UNODC in August 2010 indicates that 2,316 ha of illicitly cultivated opium poppy were eradicated in Afghanistan through the Governor-led opium poppy eradication campaign, an
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area 57 per cent less than the area eradicated in 2009 (5,351 ha) and 88 per cent less than the peak reached in 2007 (19,510 ha). Although the greatest area of illicitly cultivated opium poppy eradicated in 2010 was that reported for Helmand (1,602 ha, or 69 per cent of the total area), that amount is miniscule compared with the total area under illicit opium poppy cultivation in that province (65,045 ha).
632. Afghanistan has emerged as one of the main countries in which cannabis plants are illicitly cultivated, as evidenced by the outcome of the first ever cannabis survey in Afghanistan. Illicit cultivation of cannabis plant takes place on a large scale in 17 of the 34 provinces in Afghanistan, and the area under such cultivation is estimated at 10,000-24,000 ha, indicating a production capacity of between 1,500 and 3,500 tons of cannabis resin per year. The extremely high yield of cannabis resin in Afghanistan (about 145 kg per hectare) is more than three times the yield in Morocco (40 kg per hectare). In 2009, 67 per cent of farmers growing cannabis plants also grew opium poppy.
633. The campaign against drug trafficking in Afghanistan was much more successful than the illicit crop eradication campaigns in the country. From April 2009 to March 2010, the law enforcement authorities of Afghanistan reported 397 cases of drug trafficking and seized 2.5 tons of heroin, over 7.5 tons of morphine, more than 59 tons of opium, more than 23 tons of cannabis resin, more than 417.5 tons of solid precursor chemicals and almost 40,000 litres of liquid precursor chemicals.
634. The Board once again urges the Government of Afghanistan, as well as the international community, to take effective measures to eradicate illicit opium poppy cultivation and ensure that opium poppy growers are provided with legitimate livelihoods that are sustainable. The Board wishes to emphasize that eradication of illicit opium poppy cultivation in Afghanistan will require a sustained effort.
635. Afghan opiates are smuggled predominantly through Iran (Islamic Republic of), Pakistan and countries in Central Asia. Those countries are faced with a wide range of problems related to large-scale drug trafficking, such as organized crime, corruption and relatively high illicit demand for opiates.
636. In the Islamic Republic of Iran, there is no significant illicit cultivation of opium poppy. However, as the route through the Islamic Republic of Iran is one of the shortest routes for smuggling Afghan opiates into European countries, it remains the main route used by drug traffickers; an estimated 140 tons of Afghan heroin is smuggled through the country each year. Accordingly the Islamic Republic of Iran continues to be the country in which more opiates are seized than in any other country in the world. In 2009, the seizures of opium (579 tons), heroin (23.4 tons) and morphine (16.1 tons) represented increases of 300 per cent, 113 per cent and 60 per cent compared with 2008.
637. Pakistan continues to be used by drug traffickers as a major transit area for shipments of Afghan opiates. According to UNODC estimates, up to 40 per cent of the opium produced in Afghanistan transits or is abused in Pakistan. From 2007 to 2009, that amounted to roughly 8,800 tons of opium or its equivalent when refined into morphine and heroin.
638. In Pakistan, Government data for 2009 show a decrease in the amount of opium seized (from 28 to 25 tons) and the amount of morphine seized (from 7 to 2 tons), compared with the data for 2008. The amount of seized heroin increased marginally, from 1.9 to 2 tons, whereas the amount of seized cannabis increased sharply by 52 per cent, from 134.6 tons in 2008 to 204.5 tons in 2009.
639. Illicit cultivation of opium poppy continues to take place on a small scale in several countries in Central Asia and the southern Caucasus. The illicitly produced opium is mostly used locally, though a relatively small portion of it is smuggled into the Russian Federation.
640. Trafficking in narcotic drugs along the northern route, through Central Asia, persists: it is estimated that up to 25 per cent of Afghan opiates passed through Central Asia in 2009. However, drug seizures in the subregion have followed a significant downward trend. In 2009, the total amount of drugs seized in the Central Asian countries of Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan and in Azerbaijan decreased by 13.4 per cent, from 49.9 tons in 2008 to 43.2 tons in 2009. In particular, the amount of seized heroin decreased by 34.4 per cent, from 3.7 tons in 2008 to 2.4 tons in 2009.
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641. This downward trend appears to have continued in 2010. In the first three months of 2010, the total amount of heroin seized in Central Asia decreased by 26 per cent compared with the same period in 2009 (from 897 to 662.5 kg). The amount of seized heroin decreased in Kazakhstan by 60 per cent, in Kyrgyzstan by 64 per cent and in Uzbekistan by 60 per cent. Only Tajikistan reported an increase in seizures of heroin, of 33 per cent, from 266 kg to 353 kg.
642. Compared with 2008, there was a decrease of 54 per cent in the amount of heroin seized in Kazakhstan (from 1.6 tons to 731 kg) and 31 per cent decrease in Tajikistan (from 1.6 tons to 1.1 tons), although those two countries still accounted for 76 per cent of the total amount of heroin seized in Central Asia. The amount of heroin seized in Kyrgyzstan increased by 14 per cent (from 299 kg to 341 kg) and Azerbaijan by 63 per cent (from 144 kg to 235 kg).
643. The total amount of opiates seized in Central Asia and Azerbaijan decreased by 27 per cent, from almost 6 tons in 2008 to 4.4 tons in 2009.
644. According to official reports, the law enforcement authorities of Tajikistan seized 2 tons of drugs in the first six months of 2010, nearly a third less than the amount seized in the same period of 2009. Heroin accounted for more than a quarter of the drugs seized (540 kg). Damage to the opium poppy crop caused by a fungus was one of the main reasons for the decline.
645. The unstable political situation, mountainous landscape and weak border controls, exacerbated by conflicts that exist in some parts of the southern Caucasus, contribute to the spread of all kinds of criminal activities, such as illegal immigration, illicit drug crop cultivation, trafficking and money-laundering.
646. A total of 811 drug-related crime cases linked to the illicit distribution of narcotic drugs, psychotropic substances and precursors were registered in Armenia in the first half of 2010, a 50-per-cent increase over the same period in 2009.
647. The Middle East, including the Arabian Peninsula, is mainly used as a transit area for smuggling heroin from Afghanistan into Arab countries. Cocaine originating in South America reaches the subregion through Europe.
648. Cannabis remains the most widely abused drug in the Middle East, including the Arabian Peninsula, where the cannabis plant is illicitly cultivated in many countries, such as Iran (Islamic Republic of), Iraq, Lebanon, the Syrian Arab Republic and Turkey. In Turkey, 25 per cent more cannabis was seized in 2009 than in 2008, and some of that cannabis may have originated in rural areas of the country.
649. The illicit drug most seized in Jordan, by amount, is cannabis, followed by heroin and Captagon tablets. There has recently been an increase in the number of cocaine shipments seized in Jordan after having transited Europe; the shipments had been destined for Israel and Lebanon.
650. According to the World Customs Organization, a total of 3 tons of cannabis resin were seized in the Middle East in 2009. In Yemen, the largest single seizure of cannabis resin amounted to 2.4 kg and was concealed in a seafreight shipment from Pakistan. Cannabis resin seized in Kuwait originated in Iraq. The Lebanese customs authorities uncovered at a seaport 85 kg of cannabis resin that had been destined for the Netherlands.
651. Although the number of heroin seizures remained stable in the Middle East, there was an increase in the quantity seized. The two largest seizures of heroin in the subregion in 2009 were reported in Jordan (70 kg) and Bahrain (34 kg). The heroin shipment seized in Jordan had arrived from the Syrian Arab Republic by road and had been destined for Saudi Arabia. The heroin shipment seized in Bahrain had departed from the United Arab Emirates and had transited Saudi Arabia.
652. Heroin from Afghanistan continues to be smuggled into European countries via the Balkan, northern Black Sea and Eastern European routes. Seizures of opiates originating in Afghanistan have been reported by the law enforcement agencies of Turkey. In Turkey, nearly 98 per cent of the opium seizures take place in provinces bordering the Islamic Republic of Iran or in the city of Istanbul. The amount of heroin seized in Turkey increased to 15.4 tons in 2008.
Psychotropic substances
653. In the Islamic Republic of Iran, the abuse of amphetamine-type stimulants has grown dramatically
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and has led to some major drug trafficking. The amount of seized amphetamine-type stimulants reached 2.4 tons in 2009, an increase of 60 per cent over the previous year.
654. Trafficking in and abuse of amphetamine-type stimulants in the Middle East continue to increase. Reports indicate that laboratories illicitly manufacturing Captagon tablets have continued to be dismantled in the subregion, in particular in Saudi Arabia and the Syrian Arab Republic. The Middle East is the subregion in which the largest amount of amphetamine-type stimulants is seized.
655. Reports of amphetamine seizures in countries in the Middle East continue to refer predominantly to tablets sold as Captagon. Although it is not always clear which psychoactive ingredients are contained in such tablets, reports suggest that the main component is amphetamine smuggled from South-Eastern Europe and that such tablets frequently contain caffeine. Analysis of Captagon tablets seized in Iraq confirmed that they contained between 7 and 20 milligrams of amphetamine and other ingredients such as caffeine and theophylline and not fenetylline.
656. In addition to opiates, cannabis and cocaine, synthetic drugs, including pharmaceutical preparations, in particular tablets containing amphetamine sold as Captagon, are reported to be readily available in Iraq. Synthetic drugs are illegally exported to the country by mixing them among consignments of licit pharmaceutical products.
657. Captagon tablets containing amphetamine that are illicitly manufactured in laboratories in the Syrian Arab Republic and Turkey are smuggled into Saudi Arabia, the largest illicit market for Captagon, and Iraq. In 2009, a laboratory illicitly producing Captagon tablets from amphetamine was discovered in Istanbul, Turkey. In the operation, more than 2 million Captagon tablets and the tabletting press were seized, as reported by Government sources.
658. Saudi Arabian customs authorities detected more than 13 tons of amphetamine in 2009; the largest seizure (2.5 tons) took place at the border with Jordan. Most of the amphetamine seized in Saudi Arabia had been sent from Jordan; the Syrian Arab Republic and Egypt, in descending order, were also important source countries.
659. According to INTERPOL, in 2009, there was a significant increase in seizures of methamphetamine (in crystalline and liquid form) with links to the Islamic Republic of Iran. In 12 cases, the seized methamphetamine had originated in the Islamic Republic of Iran; however, some countries in the region, such as Qatar, Turkey and the United Arab Emirates, were frequently used as countries of departure or transit countries. Indonesia, Japan, Malaysia, New Zealand and Thailand were identified as countries of destination.
660. The non-medical use of prescription drugs, as well as psychoactive substances not under international control, in particular tranquillizers and sleeping tablets, is increasing in some countries in the Middle East. In Israel, according to the 2009 national survey on illegal use of drugs and alcohol, substances obtained without medical prescription include preparations containing diazepam, methylphenidate and pseudoephedrine. There is also increased abuse of cathinone (“hagigat”) tablets, in particular among students. In Kuwait, abuse of preparations containing tramadol is increasing.
Precursors
661. The smuggling of acetic anhydride through West Asia continued in 2009 and 2010. During 2010, authorities in China and Spain suspended suspicious shipments of large quantities of acetic anhydride destined for Iraq. In addition, between September 2009 and May 2010, authorities in the Islamic Republic of Iran seized three shipments with a total of 380 litres of acetic anhydride originating in northern Iraq. Furthermore, countries in West Asia, such as Pakistan and the United Arab Emirates, have been used as transit areas for shipments of acetic anhydride originating in China and the Republic of Korea and en route to Afghanistan.
662. Shipments of ephedrine and pseudoephedrine destined for countries in West Asia were seized or stopped during the period 2009-2010. The authorities of Canada and India stopped large shipments of ephedrine and pseudoephedrine, both in the form of raw materials and pharmaceutical preparations, destined for Iraq, Jordan and the United Arab Emirates. In addition, in 2009, there was an increase in seizures of methamphetamine with links to the Islamic Republic of Iran. In view of the high annual licit requirements for pseudoephedrine (55,000 kg) reported by the
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authorities of the Islamic Republic of Iran, the Board urges the Government to remain vigilant and apply adequate controls to prevent the diversion of ephedrine and pseudoephedrine, precursors used in the illicit manufacture of methamphetamine, from licit channels.
663. Another concern of the Board is the legitimacy of large shipments of P-2-P into Jordan and the Syrian Arab Republic. Some of those shipments were claimed to be re-exported to Iraq. P-2-P, a precursor of amphetamine, might have been used in the illicit manufacture of amphetamine-type stimulants.
664. In September 2009, the Turkish police seized three clandestine drug laboratories and a storage facility containing several tons of precursor chemicals and drugs, including 400 kg of amphetamine and 600 kg of P-2-P, as well as 5 tons of alpha-phenylacetoacetonitrile, a precursor of P-2-P. According to police authorities, the material found could have been used to manufacture more than 200 million amphetamine-type-stimulant tablets, which were probably intended for countries in the Middle East, the main illicit market for such tablets.
5. Abuse and treatment
665. According to Drug Use in Afghanistan: 2009 Survey; Executive Summary, prepared by UNODC, there are nearly 1 million problem drug users in Afghanistan aged 15-64. Compared to the findings of a previous survey conducted in 2005, opium use increased by 53 per cent, while heroin use increased by a staggering 140 per cent. Reportedly, no more than 11 per cent of drug abusers awaiting treatment (86,000 individuals) had received any form of treatment or intervention, as there remains an enormous treatment gap, with a capacity of only 10,500 treatment places per year for the 780,000 drug abusers awaiting treatment. Drug addiction is harming health and welfare among the population of Afghanistan, and much greater resources are thus required for the prevention and treatment of drug abuse as part of mainstream health-care and development programmes.
666. Drug dependency in Afghanistan, notably dependency on opiates such as heroin and opioid analgesics, continues to increase. Easy access to cheap drugs and limited access to drug abuse treatment, combined with the effects of three decades of war-related trauma, have resulted in problematic drug use among almost 1 million Afghans, roughly 8 per cent of the population aged 15-64 years. The effects of that high rate of abuse — twice the global average — are debilitating, not only for those affected but also for their families, communities and the country as a whole.
667. The abuse of opiates continues to pose a major problem in countries neighbouring Afghanistan and even in countries near Afghanistan. Nearly all those countries have high rates of drug abuse. The Islamic Republic of Iran, for example, has the world’s highest rate for abuse of opiates: an estimated 2.8 per cent of the population aged 15-64 in 2007. Pakistan also has a high abuse rate for opiates: the estimated rate of drug abuse among the population aged 15-64 in 2009 was 0.7 per cent. Many countries in Central Asia have similar levels of drug abuse, with heroin having replaced cannabis and opium as the main drug of abuse. In Central Asia, the incidence of heroin dependence among registered drug abusers ranges from 50 to 80 per cent, the highest rates being recorded in Tajikistan and Uzbekistan.
668. As of April 2010, the number of officially registered drug addicts in Kazakhstan stood at 50,506 persons, which represents the highest prevalence rate in Central Asia — 323 per 100,000 individuals (or 0.5 per cent of the adult population). A total of 9,730 persons in Kyrgyzstan (or 0.3 per cent of the adult population) were officially registered as drug abusers in 2010. The number of persons abusing drugs is increasing in Tajikistan as well; according to official statistics, in 2009, there were 8,018 registered drug abusers in the country (or 0.2 per cent of the adult population), of which 81 per cent were abusing heroin. In Uzbekistan, 20,832 persons (or 0.1 per cent of the adult population) were officially registered as drug addicts in 2009; however, according to a UNODC assessment study, 80,000 persons in the country abuse heroin by injection.
669. There are no estimates of the prevalence of drug abuse in countries in the Middle East and in the Gulf States owing to the lack of proper monitoring systems. Lack of adequate resources makes information on the extent and patterns of and trends in drug abuse in the region very limited, which hampers the tailoring of the response to the drug problem. The Board encourages the Governments of those countries to conduct comprehensive surveys and rapid assessments of the
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drug abuse situation and to take effective measures in the area of demand reduction.
670. According to the 2009 in-depth survey of new referrals (male) to the addiction unit of the psychological medicine hospital in Kuwait in 2009, the number of new referrals to the unit was greater than in 2008. The proportion of new cases of polydrug users is high (74 per cent). Abuse of amphetamines remains high, while cocaine abuse is very low. Substance abuse such as tramadol has increased.
671. For patients treated at the national centre for rehabilitation in Amman, the primary substance of abuse was alcohol, followed by benzodiazepines, opioids and cannabis. Abuse of Captagon and other stimulants is increasing.
672. Lebanese authorities reported that in 2009, 70 per cent of drug abusers injected drugs. According to national estimates, the majority of drug abusers are polydrug abusers. Among the 1,022 people in treatment (detoxification and rehabilitation), 10 per cent are female, and the most prevalent drugs of abuse continued to be, in descending order, cannabis, heroin, cocaine, benzodiazepines and amphetamine, according to Government sources.
673. With the support of UNODC and other international agencies, the Ministry of Health of Lebanon is launching an opioid substitution therapy programme.
674. According to a 2008 national survey, among 10 provinces in Iraq, a total of 1,462 drug addicts received treatment (52 females and 1,410 males), with the largest proportion in Baghdad (468 individuals).
675. Drug abuse by injection is increasing in many countries in West Asia, contributing to a growing HIV problem. Drug abuse by injection is one of the main driving forces behind the spread of HIV in Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan, the two countries in the region in which the virus has spread the fastest. Up to 54 per cent of all HIV cases in Tajikistan are related to drug abuse. The same phenomenon has been noted in Pakistan and countries in the southern Caucasus.
676. In 2010, with the support of the Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS), UNODC and WHO, the Government of Afghanistan scaled up its HIV-prevention efforts, which include the provision of methadone maintenance therapy, training
on health and social services for drug abusers in Kabul.
D. Europe
1. Major developments
677. According to EMCDDA and UNODC, the level of cannabis abuse in Europe is moving into a period of stabilization and even, in some cases, decline. Austria, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Finland, France, Italy, Romania, Spain and Sweden have all reported a decrease in the prevalence of cannabis abuse; the United Kingdom, too, has reported a significant decline over the past few years. Surveys of students conducted in 2008 in Belgium, Italy, Spain, Sweden and the United Kingdom indicate that lifetime prevalence of cannabis abuse was either comparable to or lower than that reported in 2007.
678. Trafficking in cannabis herb remains at a significant level in Europe. Cannabis herb is produced in considerable amounts in the Netherlands and in a number of other Western European countries. Most of the cannabis herb abused in Central Europe and Eastern Europe is produced in Albania, Bulgaria, Montenegro, the Republic of Moldova, Serbia, the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia and Ukraine. The cannabis resin abused in Europe originates, in great part, in Morocco. Cannabis resin produced in Morocco is smuggled, mainly by boat, into the Iberian peninsula, and from there it is transported by freight or passenger vehicle to other countries in Western Europe. A particularly noteworthy development is the increase in illicit cultivation of cannabis plant in Europe, especially indoors and on a large scale.
679. Cocaine is smuggled into Europe by air and by sea. Multi-ton shipments of cocaine are transported by sea from Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, Suriname and Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of) and dropped off mainly near the coasts of Portugal, Spain and other countries. Although most consignments of cocaine are bound for Western Europe, in recent years authorities have made substantial seizures of cocaine, usually concealed in containers, at major seaports in the Balkans.
680. The abuse of cocaine is spreading from Western Europe to other parts of Europe. In some countries, the abuse of cocaine may be replacing the abuse of
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amphetamine and MDMA (“ecstasy”); for instance, in Denmark, Spain and the United Kingdom, increases in the level of cocaine abuse co-occurred with decreases in the level of amphetamine abuse. It is estimated that the number of cocaine abusers in Western Europe and Central Europe doubled from 2 million in 1998 to 4.1 million in 2008, with the combined cocaine consumption of those two subregions accounting for a quarter of global cocaine consumption.
681. The illicit market for opiates in Europe is the largest in the world. The abuse of opiates has reportedly been increasing in several Eastern European countries, particularly in Albania, Belarus, Croatia, the Republic of Moldova and countries along the Balkan route. The Russian Federation remains the European country with the highest number of people who abuse opioids. According to UNODC, there are between 1.6 million and 1.8 million opioid abusers in the Russian Federation, which is equivalent to 1.6 per cent of the overall population aged 15-64.
682. Almost all the heroin available on illicit drug markets in Europe originates in Afghanistan. Heroin originating in Afghanistan arrives mostly via the Balkan route, which runs from Turkey to either Bulgaria or Greece and from there to Albania or Serbia. In addition, heroin continues to be trafficked along the so-called “silk route”, through Central Asia into the Russian Federation, to be sold on the illicit market in that country or, to a lesser extent, smuggled into Western European countries.
683. Europe has seen an increase in the variety of drugs being abused, which include a growing range of substances not under international control. The use of the Internet to market drugs and the capacity of the illicit drug market to adapt swiftly to changes in the legal status of psychoactive substances have played a major role in the region. Also of significance is the increase in the use of the Internet to sell seeds of cannabis plants with a high THC level, in particular seeds to be used to illicitly cultivate cannabis plants indoors.
2. Regional cooperation
684. In 2009, the European Union and China signed a new agreement to enhance precursor control and coordination, and China announced tighter controls on the manufacture of 3,4-MDP-2-P, the precursor chemical most commonly used in Europe in the illicit manufacture of MDMA.
685. Also in 2009, two phases of the operation Channel 2009 were conducted by CSTO and the Federal Drug Control Service of the Russian Federation, with the participation of Armenia, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan. Several European Union member States also participated in the operation, including Bulgaria, Estonia, Germany, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Romania and Spain. In September 2009, representatives of law enforcement agencies of Turkey and Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of) took part, for the first time, in the operation (first phase).
686. The goal of the operation was to build a system of enhanced collective security to prevent trafficking in drugs from Afghanistan and the entry of precursor chemicals into Central Asian countries and Afghanistan. More than 139,000 officers from various drug control agencies of CSTO member States were involved in the operation. The joint operation resulted in the seizure of over 28 tons of drugs, including more than 790 kg of heroin, 799 kg of cocaine, 14 tons of cannabis herb and 4.5 tons of cannabis resin. In addition, over 12 tons of other opiates of Afghan origin were seized; that amount exceeded the quantity seized in previous years.
687. In September 2009, the European Commission conference on bridging the research gap in the field of illicit drugs in the European Union recommended that European Union member States and the scientific community work towards the common goals of enhancing drug-related research and sharing research findings.
688. The European Union and Governments of the region took part in various initiatives addressing the problem of opium originating in Afghanistan. For example, at the London Conference on Afghanistan held in January 2010, the parties agreed to support increased regional cooperation to combat the illicit trade in drugs in and from Afghanistan. In addition, an international forum on the theme “Drug production in Afghanistan: A challenge to the international community” was held in Moscow in June 2010, emphasizing the importance of the role played by the Russian Federation in tackling that problem in the region.
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689. At the twelfth High-Level Meeting of the Coordination and Cooperation Mechanism on Drugs between the European Union, Latin America and the Caribbean, held in Madrid in April 2010, participants adopted a political declaration that recognized the importance of coordinating common political positions in the context of international forums such as the Commission on Narcotic Drugs, biregional cooperation in demand and supply reduction efforts, control of precursors and laundering of funds derived from drug trafficking.
690. On the occasion of the sixth summit between Latin America, the Caribbean and the European Union, held in Madrid in May 2010, the Andean Community member States and the European Union confirmed their commitment to give greater political impetus to biregional dialogue to tackle the global issue of drugs as identified and developed in the framework of the Coordination and Cooperation Mechanism on Drugs, in accordance with the principle of shared responsibility. In particular, a commitment was made to strengthen the European Union-Andean Community High-Level Specialized Dialogue on Drugs. The Madrid Action Plan 2010-2012 reflects the priorities established at the summit and includes as a key area the world drug problem. The Board urges the European Union to continue strengthening cooperation with the Andean countries within a framework of shared responsibility.
691. In May 2010, the Mexico-European Union Strategic Partnership announced its Joint Executive Plan. Under the Plan and within the framework of the European Union Regional Strategy for Latin America 2007-2013, the European Union and Mexico intend to explore innovative mechanisms for cooperation that build upon the Cooperation Programme between Latin America and the European Union on Anti-Drugs Policies (COPOLAD) initiative.
692. The second World Forum against Drugs, organized by the World Federation against Drugs, was held in Stockholm in May 2010. The main themes of the Forum were new research on cannabis abuse, the influence of illicit drugs on development and democracy in sub-Saharan Africa, and drug abuse among adults and its influence on children.
693. A European pact to combat international drug trafficking, focusing on cocaine and heroin, was adopted in June 2010 by the Council of the European Union. The pact seeks to disrupt cocaine trafficking routes by utilizing regional information exchange centres set up in West Africa, together with coordinated action by the European States and institutions along the Atlantic and Mediterranean coasts, as well as by streamlining the provision of technical assistance to source and transit countries.
694. In June 2010, the European Medicines Agency and EMCDDA signed a new working arrangement facilitating the exchange of information on new psychoactive substances and misused medicines.
695. The XVIII International AIDS Conference was held in Vienna in July 2010. Under the slogan “Rights here, right now”, the Conference participants emphasized the necessity of protecting the human and civil rights of those living with or most vulnerable to HIV.
696. In September 2010, the seventeenth European Cities against Drugs (ECAD) Mayors’ Conference on Drugs was held in Malta. The Conference discussed ways to strengthen, through international cooperation and exchanges, local, national and international efforts to combat the abuse of illicit drugs.
3. National legislation, policy and action
697. In 2009, the Government of Slovakia amended its law governing narcotic drugs and psychotropic substances. The amendments include a list of the entities allowed to possess narcotic drugs and psychotropic substances, provide for action against unauthorized cultivation of cannabis plant or opium poppy and specify the conditions for temporary suspension of a licence in cases where a licence holder is accused of a criminal offence.
698. In December 2009, the Government of Croatia amended its legislation on combating drug abuse. The amendment introduced new requirements in the areas of precursor control and the monitoring of chemical substances, and it shortened the mandatory period for holding seized drugs before they can be destroyed.
699. Also in December 2009, the Government of the Czech Republic stipulated quantity-based limits for the illegal possession of controlled drugs without intent to sell. The limits were introduced as part of a revision of the penal code with effect from 1 January 2010. Under the new law, illegal possession of controlled drugs in quantities less than the defined amount is classified as an administrative offence.
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700. Hungary’s first national drug control strategy was evaluated in 2009, and a new strategy — the National Strategy for Tackling the Drugs Problem 2010-2018 — was adopted in December of that year. The Strategy is built around the following three pillars: prevention and community interventions; treatment and care; and supply reduction.
701. In December 2009, the Government of Latvia amended its law on the prevention of laundering of the proceeds from crime and the financing of terrorism. The amendment specifies the operations in the area of laundering of proceeds from criminal activities that fall under the investigative competence of the State Control Service.
702. In December 2009 and May 2010, the Russian Federation considered amendments to its Criminal Code aimed at wider use of non-custodial measures for non-serious crimes, including drug-related crimes. Under the amended Russian Criminal Code, an amount of heroin in excess of 2.5 grams is considered an extremely large amount and, in case of possession without intent to sell, such possession is punishable by mandatory imprisonment of 3-10 years.
703. The Government of Lithuania has approved amendments to its Penal Code lengthening prison sentences for the illegal production, acquisition, storage, transportation, sending, selling or any other act involving first-category drugs or precursors of psychoactive substances. A prison sentence of 2-10 years is the punishment foreseen for the illegal production,    acquisition,    storage,    transportation,
sending or selling of large quantities of such substances. In 2010, the Lithuanian Psychiatrists Association disseminated a methodology for using methadone to treat opioid dependency, with the aim of assisting psychiatrists in providing evidence-based and quality treatment for opioid-dependent individuals.
704. In 2010, the Government of Luxembourg launched its Strategy and Plan of Action on Drugs and Drug Addiction for 2010-2014. The Plan of Action addresses demand and supply reduction; reduction of risk, harm and nuisance; research; and international coordination.
705. In Germany, following the adoption in 2009 of a law allowing diamorphine-based substitution treatment for addicts meeting strict eligibility requirements, a joint national board issued guidelines in March 2010 for diamorphine-supported substitution treatment.
706. In May 2010, the Pharmaceutical Society of Ireland issued guidance for pharmacists on the safe supply of non-prescription medicinal products containing codeine. The guidance aims at assisting pharmacists in fulfilling professional and legal responsibilities in the supply of such products and in complying with the Pharmacy Act 2007. Further, the Government of Ireland agreed to fund a network of drug- and alcohol-free cafes providing counselling and health services for young people.
707. As part of its efforts to prevent the abuse of substances to experience “legal highs”, the Government of Ireland in May 2010 placed under control a number of substances not under international control, including N-benzylpiperazine (BZP), mephedrone, synthetic cannabinoids, methylone methedrone, butylone, flephedrone, methylenedioxypyrovalerone, GBL and 1,4-butanediol. An additional measure in this direction — the Criminal Justice (Psychoactive Substances) Bill 2010 — will, once enacted, criminalize the sale or supply for human consumption of substances that although not specifically proscribed under the Misuse of Drugs Act have psychoactive effects.
708. In June 2010, the Government of the Russian Federation adopted the State Antidrug Policy Strategy of the Russian Federation for the period 2010-2020. It is the first comprehensive document consolidating the Government’s efforts to prevent the spread of drug abuse in the country. The Strategy aims at suppression of the illicit production of and trafficking in drugs, reduction of drug demand by improving the system of prevention and rehabilitation activities and development and strengthening of international cooperation in the area of drug control.
709. Demand for treatment related to cannabis abuse continues to increase in the Netherlands. In September 2010, the Government decided to regulate the so-called “coffee shops”, where the sale, possession and consumption of cannabis is tolerated, and to introduce harsher penalties for importing and exporting drugs, as well as for illicit crop cultivation and drug trafficking. However, the Board wishes to reiterate that the so-called “coffee shops” contravene the international drug control treaties.
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710. In October 2010, Belgium introduced random saliva testing of drivers to detect illicit drug use. A driver who tests positive for illicit drug use can be fined or banned from driving or, in the case of reoffenders, sentenced to prison.
4. Cultivation, production, manufacture and trafficking
Narcotic drugs
711. Illicit cultivation of cannabis plant is on the rise in Europe. In the United Kingdom, the number of detected illicit cultivation sites of commercial size jumped from 3,032 in the growing period 2007/08 to 6,866 in the growing period 2009/10. In Germany, the increased detection in the growing period 2008/09 of illicit cultivation sites with capacity for at least 1,000 plants pointed to the increasing professionalization of this activity. Austria, too, reported an increase in recent years of illicit cultivation of cannabis plant.
712. In Iceland, seizures of cannabis plants increased dramatically, from 893 plants in 2008 to 11,713 in 2009. Over 1 million cannabis plants illicitly cultivated indoors were eradicated in the Netherlands in 2008, and over 200,000 were eradicated in Belgium in 2009. In November 2009, the Government of Slovakia carried out a special law enforcement operation that resulted in the detection of a site used for illicitly cultivating cannabis plants indoors; a total of 318 plants having a combined weight of over 91 kg were seized in the operation.
713. According to the World Customs Organization, 68 per cent of global cannabis resin seizures by customs authorities in 2009 occurred in Western Europe. In 2009, Spanish customs authorities seized over 27 tons of cannabis resin at sea and on beaches; an estimated 93 per cent of the cannabis resin seized in Spain in 2009 originated in Morocco.
714. As reported by the World Customs Organization, most of the imported cannabis herb seized by customs authorities in Western Europe in 2009 came from Ghana; South Africa was the second largest source. It has been reported that traffickers may be using the East African route to smuggle cannabis from Afghanistan into Italy. The United Kingdom and the Netherlands were the main destination countries for cannabis herb in Western Europe, representing 83 per cent of the amount seized in the subregion.
715. In the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, illicit cultivation of cannabis plant appears to be on the increase. A major seizure of about 700 kg of locally produced cannabis herb suggests that the illicit cultivation of cannabis plants in that country was significantly higher in 2009 than in previous years, when it was reported that cannabis plants were illicitly cultivated on small plots only. The country is increasingly being used by traffickers as a transit area for cannabis shipments. The amount of cannabis seized in shipments having as their final destination the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia increased significantly in 2009, to 404 kg, compared with 157 kg in 2008.
716. The flow of cocaine shipments entering Europe through West Africa declined between 2007 and 2009. According to the World Customs Organization, the amount of cocaine seized in Western Europe after having arrived from or transited through West Africa dropped from 2.4 tons in 2007 to 0.2 tons in 2009. In Western Europe, the amount of cocaine seized by customs authorities fell from 54.9 tons in 2007 to 34.9 tons in 2009. UNODC reported that law enforcement authorities in Europe seized a total of 62.7 tons of cocaine in 2008. Seizures made by the customs authorities in Spain decreased from over 36 tons in 2007 to almost 18 tons in 2009. There was also a significant drop in cocaine seizures in the Netherlands. Between 2008 and 2009, however, cocaine seizures increased both in Germany (by a factor of 1.6) and in Greece (by a factor of about 9).
717. Cocaine seized in Europe originates mainly in Colombia, although Peru and the Plurinational State of Bolivia are increasing in significance as source countries. Cocaine is smuggled into Europe by sea from the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela, Ecuador and Panama, although Brazil and Suriname are increasingly being used as transit countries. In addition, Europol has identified the “northern route”, leading from the Caribbean via the Azores to the coasts of Portugal and Spain, and the “central route”, leading from South America via Cape Verde or Madeira and the Canary Islands to Europe.
718. The main European points of entry for cocaine are Belgium, the Netherlands, Portugal and Spain: together they accounted for about 70 per cent of all
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cocaine seized in Europe in 2008, although they accounted for only 25 per cent of the cocaine consumption in the region. That being said, cocaine trafficking routes are expanding eastward, in particular into the Balkan area. The United Kingdom has also been identified as one of the countries through which cocaine enters the European Union.
719. According to the World Customs Organization, seizures of “crack” cocaine in Western Europe in 2009 were reported mainly in the Netherlands; Suriname was the source country in most of the cases and shipment was mainly by express courier service. The amount of “crack” cocaine seized in Germany decreased from 8.2 kg in 2008 to 4.6 kg in 2009 (44 per cent). In France, 12 kg of “crack” cocaine were seized in 2009.
720. In 2009, the Russian Federation reported to the World Customs Organization 10 seizures of cocaine totalling 101 kg; that was the lowest annual quantity seized during the three-year period ending in 2009. In five of those seizures (totalling 90 kg), which were detected in Saint Petersburg and Novorossiysk, the cocaine had been concealed in sea freight shipments originating in Ecuador. Consignments of cocaine from Ecuador are increasingly being sent to the Russian Federation.
721. According to Europol, the number of nationals of Balkan countries involved in cocaine trafficking has grown in recent years. Albania, in addition to having a historical role in heroin trafficking along the Balkan route, has reportedly been used as a storage area for consignments of cocaine. The greater involvement of organized criminal groups may indicate that the infrastructure established in the Balkan area for smuggling cannabis and opiates (particularly heroin) is now being used for smuggling increasingly larger quantities of cocaine.
722. Seizures of cocaine at seaports in the Balkan area showed an increase in 2009. At the Black Sea port of Constanla, Romania, authorities seized 1.2 tons of cocaine that had been concealed in a shipment of wood loaded at Paranaguâ, Brazil. Law enforcement authorities in Varna, Bulgaria, seized 1,020 bottles containing a mixture of cocaine and wine shipped from Santa Cruz de la Sierra, Plurinational State of Bolivia; the pure cocaine content was estimated at 100 kg. In Greece, 450 kg of cocaine concealed in a shipment of scrap metal were seized at Piraeus.
723. An EMCDDA/Europol analysis of the cocaine market, released in April 2010, identified innovative techniques being used to smuggle cocaine, such as incorporating cocaine base or hydrochloride into other materials (e.g. beeswax, plastic and clothing) and then extracting it at special laboratories set up inside European Union borders. According to the analysis, some 40 laboratories for the “secondary extraction” of cocaine were identified and dismantled in European Union member States in 2008. Similar laboratories have been reported in Albania and the Republic of Moldova.
724. Most of the heroin smuggled into Western Europe is transported along the Balkan route from Afghanistan and Pakistan through the Islamic Republic of Iran, Turkey and countries in South-Eastern Europe. The Government of Italy has reported that traffickers may be using the East African route also to smuggle heroin from Afghanistan. The main mode of transport used in smuggling heroin into Western Europe was overland by road or rail, although the World Customs Organization has highlighted the growing significance of air traffic routes in this activity. According to the World Customs Organization, South Africa was the main source of heroin seized in 2009 along air traffic routes in Western Europe.
725. UNODC estimates that about 25 per cent of all the heroin manufactured in Afghanistan is smuggled each year along the northern route, i.e. through Central Asia (Tajikistan, Turkmenistan or Uzbekistan), with a final destination of the Russian Federation. Based on seizures made at border crossings, most of the heroin is transported through Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan and from there through Kazakhstan into the Russian Federation. The heroin is smuggled mostly overland by road and often in small quantities.
726. According to the World Customs Organization, customs authorities in Eastern European and Central European countries seized a total of 3.5 tons of heroin in 2009, compared with 4.9 tons in 2008. Europol and EMCDDA report that European law enforcement authorities seize between 8 and 15 tons of heroin each year. The main country of destination for the heroin shipments was Germany, followed by Bulgaria, the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, Romania, the Netherlands and Greece. Heroin continues to be smuggled almost exclusively overland in vehicles. Although most of the seized shipments of Afghan
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heroin originate in Turkey, in 2009 — for the first time — Iraq and the Syrian Arab Republic were reported to be the countries of departure for such shipments (27 kg and 11 kg respectively).
727. The customs authorities of the Russian Federation seized a total of 510 kg of heroin in 2009, according to the World Customs Organization. The largest single seizure of heroin involved 196 kg and was made at the Yarag-Kazmalyar border crossing. The consignment, which was being transported from Azerbaijan on a truck, had originated in the Islamic Republic of Iran and was bound for Belarus.
728. Western Europe saw a slight decrease in seizures of heroin by customs authorities in the period 2008- 2009; an estimated 1.9 tons of heroin were seized in 2009. The largest seizures in 2009 were made in France, Germany, Italy and the United Kingdom. While Sweden reported a decrease in seizures of heroin, increases were reported in Austria, Germany, Greece and Norway.
729. Illicit cultivation of opium poppy occurs to a limited extent in some Eastern European countries. In Ukraine, the Republic of Moldova and the Russian Federation, opium poppy is illicitly produced to supply local markets with poppy straw derivatives.
730. Almost 100 kg of opium were seized in Western Europe in 2009. The main country of departure of the seized opium was the Islamic Republic of Iran, while Germany and Sweden were the main countries of destination.
Psychotropic substances
731. In 2008, Europe accounted for about one third (8.4 tons) of global seizures of amphetamine; that amount was only slightly below the amount seized in 2007 (8.7 tons). Seizures of amphetamines by customs authorities in Western Europe increased from 2.7 tons in 2007 to 3.0 tons in 2009, the main country of departure being the Netherlands. The main countries of destination of amphetamines seized in Western Europe were Denmark, Finland, Germany, Mozambique, Norway, Sweden and the United Kingdom. Increases in amphetamine seizures were reported in Germany and the United Kingdom, while in the Netherlands seizures declined. In 2009, the Estonian authorities reported as an emerging trend the smuggling of amphetamine from the Russian Federation.
732. The number of methamphetamine seizures reported in Europe continued to decrease. In 2009, Sweden and Ukraine reported the largest single seizures of methamphetamine (13 kg each); the shipments were concealed in cars entering from Latvia and Lithuania respectively. In Sweden, 154.3 kg of methamphetamine were seized in 2009, and there was a significant rise in the proportion of seizures identified as originating in Lithuania; it was noted that the drugs that were seized had been manufactured from P-2-P rather than from ephedrine.
733. According to EMCDDA, MDMA (“ecstasy”) is illicitly manufactured mainly in European countries, above all in the Netherlands and Belgium and, to a lesser extent, Germany, Poland and the United Kingdom. UNODC reported in 2009 that the Netherlands was mentioned most frequently (38.5 per cent) as the source country of seized “ecstasy”; it was followed by Belgium (9.5 per cent). For “ecstasy” shipments, the main countries of destination in Western Europe in 2009 were Germany, Malta and Norway. In 2008, Western Europe and Central Europe accounted for 20 per cent of global seizures of “ecstasy”, whereas South-Eastern Europe accounted for only 4 per cent and Eastern Europe for 1.5 per cent. The amount of “ecstasy” seized in Western Europe decreased from 1.1 tons in 2007 to 0.1 tons in 2009. That development was reflected in the amount of “ecstasy” seized in Europe as a whole, which fell from 3 tons in 2007 to 1 ton in 2008.
734. UNODC reported that the availability of MDMA (“ecstasy”) tablets in Europe had declined since 2007, although tablets sold as “ecstasy” increasingly contained greater amounts of substitute psychoactive substances    not    under    international    control,
including BZP, 1-(3-chlorophenyl)piperazine (mCPP) and 1-(3-trifluoromethylphenyl)piperazine. In the European Union, 50 per cent of tablets sold as “ecstasy” in 2008 contained mCPP, compared with 10 per cent in 2006. In the United Kingdom, an analysis of “ecstasy” tablets over the period 2006-2009 showed a decrease in MDMA content and an increase in piperazine content.
Precursors
735. In the past few years, European Union member States have become targeted by traffickers in search of acetic anhydride. From 2007 to 2009, seizures of acetic
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anhydride in European Union member States totalled 159 tons, accounting for almost 60 per cent of global seizures of the substance. Most of the acetic anhydride seized in those member States had been diverted from licit trade within the European Union. While the European Commission and member States of the European Union seek ways to strengthen control over acetic anhydride, the substance continues to be diverted in the region.
736. Suspicious shipments of ephedrine and pseudoephedrine from South Asia and South-East Asia and destined for Belize, Guatemala and Mexico continue to be trans-shipped in European countries, in particular Germany, the Netherlands, Spain and the United Kingdom. Authorities in European countries have also stopped suspicious shipments of those two substances to Africa.
737. There have been no seizures of 3,4-MDP-2-P in Europe since 2007. The agreement signed by the European Union and China, which has traditionally been a source of 3,4-MDP-2-P, may have contributed to that. An increase in seizures of safrole-rich oil has been reported in Europe and there is concern that that substance could be increasingly used in the illicit manufacture of MDMA (“ecstasy”).
Substances not under international control
738. Mephedrone was recently placed under national control in Austria, Croatia, Denmark, Estonia, France, Germany, Ireland, Romania, the Russian Federation, Sweden and the United Kingdom. In May 2010, the Council of the European Union called for an assessment of the risks arising from the illicit manufacture of, trafficking in and use of mephedrone. According to a joint Europol/EMCDDA report, mephedrone is legally sold in the region, both in bulk and small quantities, through the Internet and at shops specializing in the sale of psychoactive substances (“smart shops”). The number of websites selling mephedrone is thought to have doubled between December 2009 and March 2010.
739. Eleven European Union member States have reported to Europol having seized mephedrone in quantities ranging from 2 g in Italy to 320 g (including a single seizure of 4,400 tablets) in Germany. Over the past two years, seizures of mephedrone in Sweden and the United Kingdom have increased. In the Netherlands, over 130 kg of mephedrone were seized in 2009 when two tabletting sites and four storage locations were raided.
740. Pursuant to a 2008 Council of Europe decision to ban BZP, that substance was recently placed under national control in Austria, Cyprus, Ireland, the Netherlands, Portugal, Spain and the United Kingdom.
741. During 2009, a total of 24 new psychoactive substances, all of them synthetic, were identified through the European early warning system. The substances included 9 synthetic cannabinoids, 5 phenethylamines, 2 tryptamines, 4 synthetic cathinones and 2 substances with medicinal properties.
742. According to the World Customs Organization, 43.4 tons of khat were seized in Western Europe in 2009; that was 6 tons less than in 2008. The Netherlands and the United Kingdom are the hubs for almost all smuggling of khat, which is cultivated and produced primarily in East Africa. Khat shipped to the United Kingdom is generally transported on to Finland and Norway in air passenger baggage or by air mail, while khat shipped to the Netherlands is generally transported by vehicle to Germany and the Scandinavian countries. The main countries of destination for the khat shipments seized in 2009 were Denmark, Finland, Norway and Sweden.
743. In the United Kingdom, naphyrone and its related compounds became class B drugs in July 2010 pursuant to the Misuse of Drugs Act 1971. In Ireland, there was an increase in 2010 in reports of a new drug known as “whack” being sold at drug paraphernalia shops; the drug is reported to contain new cocaine-type substances and is thought to cause psychotic reactions.
5. Abuse and treatment
744. Although cannabis resin remains the most commonly abused drug in Europe, recent years have seen an increase in the abuse of cannabis herb. According to EMCDDA, the average annual prevalence of cannabis abuse stands at 6.8 per cent (or more than 22 million individuals) of the population aged 15-64 living in the European Union. National figures vary, ranging from 0.4 to 14.6 per cent; the European countries with the lowest prevalence rates are Bulgaria, Greece, Malta and Romania, and those with the highest are the Czech Republic, France, Italy and Spain. On average, 22.1 per cent — or more than 74 million European adults — have reported lifetime
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prevalence of cannabis abuse, with national estimates situated between 1.5 and 38.6 per cent. The Board notes with concern that 2.0-2.5 per cent of Europeans aged 15-34 abuse cannabis on a daily or near-daily basis and that over 1 per cent of adults in Europe abuse cannabis daily or almost daily.
745. Cocaine remains (after cannabis) the second most-abused illicit drug in Europe, although levels vary greatly between countries. According to EMCDDA, the average annual prevalence of cocaine abuse in the European Union countries stands at 1.2 per cent, or an estimated 4 million people aged 15-64. The European countries with the lowest annual prevalence rates are Romania (0.0), Greece (0.1) and the Czech Republic, Hungary and Poland (0.2 each), while those with the highest rates are Spain (3. 1), the United Kingdom (2.4), Italy (2.2) and Ireland (1.7). The annual prevalence of cocaine abuse has increased in recent years in Albania, Cyprus, the Czech Republic, Denmark and Norway. In Italy and Spain, the rate has stabilized in recent years, while in the United Kingdom the prevalence of cocaine abuse among adults decreased over the past year.
746. Western Europe comprises the world’s largest illicit market for heroin, with approximately 60 per cent of the total illicit supply of heroin in Europe being accounted for by four countries (United Kingdom, Italy, France and Germany). European countries, including the Russian Federation, account for almost half of the heroin abused worldwide. The annual prevalence of opiate abuse in Europe was about 0.5 per cent in 2008, a level similar to that of previous years. The Russian Federation has the highest level of opiate abuse in Europe (1.6 per cent in 2007). Estonia and the United Kingdom (Scotland only) are reported to have the highest annual prevalence of opiate abuse (1.5 per cent) in Western Europe and Central Europe. While heroin abuse in Western Europe is reported to be decreasing, the number of opioid-related deaths increased in more than half of the countries in the subregion between 2006 and 2007. Heroin abuse was reported to have increased in recent years in the Russian Federation, although a decline was reported for 2009. According to UNODC, the number of heroin abusers in that country is estimated at 1.5 million.
747. Some countries of the region have shown a trend towards stabilization or even a decline in the abuse of amphetamines and MDMA (“ecstasy”). In the United Kingdom, the annual prevalence of amphetamine abuse among young adults in England and Wales declined from 6.2 per cent in 2000 to 2.4 per cent in 2010. Amphetamine is abused more commonly than methamphetamine in Europe. Recent population surveys indicate that annual prevalence of amphetamine abuse in Europe ranges from 0 to 1.3 per cent. According to EMCDDA, the average annual prevalence of amphetamine abuse among the European Union countries stands at 0.5 per cent of the population aged 15-64, or about 2 million people. The European countries with the highest annual prevalences of amphetamine abuse are Estonia (1.3), Denmark (1.2) and the United Kingdom (1.0). The largest number of amphetamine abusers is found in the age group 15-34, with an estimated 7 million people. The abuse of methamphetamine in the region appears to be limited to the Czech Republic and Slovakia.
748. According to EMCDDA, about 2.5 million European adults, or 0.8 per cent of the population aged 15-64, abused MDMA (“ecstasy”) in the past year. “Ecstasy” abuse is common among young adults: 2 million persons, or 1.6 per cent of the persons in the age group 15-34. With an average age of 24 years, abusers of “ecstasy” are among the youngest groups of drug abusers undergoing treatment and often report polydrug abuse involving “ecstasy” in combination with cannabis, cocaine or amphetamines.
749. In the Netherlands and the United Kingdom, there is increasing abuse of GBL, a solvent that is converted in the body to GHB, a substance in Schedule IV of the 1971 Convention that is associated with drug-facilitated sexual assault. To counteract that problem, GBL was placed under national control in the United Kingdom in 2009.
750. In an EMCDDA report released in June 2010, it was found that drug abuse by injection has stabilized or is declining in most European countries. EMCDDA estimated that the average prevalence of drug abuse by injection in the European Union is about 2.5 cases per 1,000 adults. The prevalence of drug abuse by injection is particularly high in Eastern Europe (1.5 per cent).
751. According to the Government of Ukraine, more than 4,000 patients received treatment in 2009 through the substitution therapy programmes in that country. The primary goal of those programmes is to expand
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access to antiretroviral therapy treatment among injecting drug abusers who are HIV-positive.
752. The number of people undergoing treatment for drug abuse and reporting heroin to be the primary drug of abuse increased in 19 European countries between 2002 and 2007. The primary drug of abuse identified by people undergoing such treatment was opioids, mainly heroin (48 per cent), followed by cannabis (21 per cent) and cocaine (17 per cent). In Europe, demand for treatment relating to the abuse of opiates decreased slightly over the past decade, contrasting with an increase in demand for treatment relating to the abuse of cannabis and cocaine. The proportion of Europeans undergoing treatment for cocaine abuse increased from 3 per cent in the period 1997-1998 to 10 per cent in the period 2007-2008. In a report by EMCDDA, it was indicated that in 16 European countries opioid substitution treatment was available to at least half of opioid abusers, while in 10 countries such treatment was available only to a minority of opioid abusers.
753. Drug-related deaths accounted for 4 per cent of all deaths of people aged 15-39 in Europe, with opioids involved in about three quarters of those cases. The number of drug-related deaths in Italy fell from 1,002 in 1999 to 484 in 2009. In Germany, 1,331 deaths related to the abuse of illegal drugs were reported in 2009, representing a decrease of 8 per cent compared with the previous year. In the United Kingdom, 2,182 drug-related deaths were reported in 2009, an increase of 11.8 per cent compared with 2008. In Ireland, the number of drug-poisoning deaths rose from 178 to 274 during the period 1998-2007, with more than half of those deaths involving heroin or other opiates. In the same period, the percentage of drug-poisoning deaths in which cocaine was involved increased significantly in that country, from 3 to 23 per cent. Benzodiazepines accounted for more deaths by poisoning in Ireland than any other substance during that period.
754. In the Netherlands, over 2,500 medical cases relating to drug abuse were reported in 2009; nearly one third of those cases occurred at large dance events. Cannabis, MDMA (“ecstasy”), GHB and cocaine were the drugs most frequently abused, with GHB accounting for 20 per cent of the total number of cases and heroin and “crack” cocaine accounting for 8 per cent. Thirty-nine per cent of the cases involved young adults between 18 and 24 years of age, many of them having abused “ecstasy” or hallucinogenic mushrooms (containing psilocybin).
755. An independent study in the United Kingdom found that there was a substantial decrease in the number of young adults entering treatment for the abuse of heroin and “crack” cocaine — from 12,320 in the period 2005-2006 to 7,427 in the period 2009- 2010. However, the study also found that there was an increase in the number of persons — in particular young adults — entering treatment for cannabis abuse: in the period 2009-2010, 4,400 of those persons under the age of 25 listed cannabis as the main drug of abuse, compared with 3,300 in the period 2005-2006.
756. Eastern Europe is one of the few areas of the world where HIV prevalence is on the rise, with severe and spreading epidemics reported in the Russian Federation and Ukraine. The prevalence of HIV infection among adults in Ukraine is the highest in Europe: over 1.6 per cent. The use of contaminated equipment for drug injection was reported as the source of infection in over 50 per cent of the newly diagnosed HIV cases in Eastern Europe. In Eastern Europe, the number of persons who abuse drugs by injection is currently estimated at 3.7 million, roughly 25 per cent of whom are believed to be infected with HIV. In Ukraine, prevalence of HIV infection among persons who abuse drugs by injection is estimated at 38.5-50.3 per cent. According to the Ministry of Health and Social Development of the Russian Federation, of the 555,272 drug abusers registered in 2009, 386,279 abused drugs by injection; and 50,994 (or 13.2 per cent) of those who abused drugs by injection were HIV-positive. The Board highlights the importance of providing assistance in drug abuse and HIV prevention, treatment and support among people who abuse drugs by injection and in prison settings in the region.
757. Polydrug abuse has been identified as a central element of the European drug problem and it is of particular concern given the unpredictable effects of combinations of drugs. The Government of Italy has reported a growing tendency towards polydrug abuse, often in association with alcohol consumption. In the Netherlands, 15 per cent of drug-related medical cases involved combinations of drugs; and in Ireland, 70 per cent of cases involving treatment for drug abuse
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in 2008 were reported to involve more than one substance.
E. Oceania
1. Major developments
758. In Australia, traffickers are increasingly using the Internet to obtain not only precursor chemicals but also equipment used for the illicit manufacture of drugs. Recently, the Australian customs authorities launched an operation to monitor importation from Internet pharmacies based overseas. The operation dismantled an organized criminal group that ordered pharmaceutical products containing pseudoephedrine from overseas-based Internet pharmacies, with the intention of reselling them to illicit drug manufacturers.
759. The Government of New Zealand has given high priority to the fight against the illicit manufacture and abuse of methamphetamine. The national action plan to tackle illicit manufacture and abuse of methamphetamine, launched in October 2009, has led to the identification of new trafficking trends, the seizure of precursor chemicals and the dismantling of clandestine methamphetamine laboratories in New Zealand. While most of the clandestine laboratories were small, they posed a significant risk to communities. In New Zealand, organized criminal groups were increasingly utilizing women and teenagers to smuggle methamphetamine and its precursors into the country.
760. Recent seizures in Oceania led to increasing concern over the use of some countries of the region as trans-shipment areas for smuggling drugs and precursors. The Oceania Customs Organisation highlighted the geographical risk factors leading to the use of those countries as transit areas for illicit drug shipments. In addition, the lack of comprehensive legislation and effective border control, as well as the fact that many States of the region are not yet parties to international drug control treaties, make these countries more vulnerable to drug trafficking. In July 2010, the Board held bilateral consultations with the Government of Papua New Guinea. The Board urged the Government to immediately take the steps necessary for Papua New Guinea to become a party to the 1988 Convention. The Board urges all States concerned, such as Cook Islands, Kiribati, the Marshall Islands, Nauru, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Samoa, the Solomon Islands, Tuvalu and Vanuatu, to accede to the international drug control treaties without further delay and to strengthen national legislation and border control.
2. Regional cooperation
761. Regional meetings in Oceania continued to play an important role in bringing countries together to address drug control issues. At the twenty-eighth annual meeting of the Pacific Islands Law Officers’ Network, held in Samoa in December 2009, participants highlighted the need for States in the region that were not yet parties to the international drug control treaties to ratify those instruments. The annual meeting of the Regional Security Committee of the Pacific Islands Forum was held in Fiji in June 2010. The issue of transnational crime, including trafficking in drugs and precursors, remained high on the agenda. There was consensus among participants that the region remained vulnerable to threats posed by transnational crime and that countries in the region must respond collectively and promptly. Recommended actions included enhancing national legislation, strengthening law enforcement capacity and improving regional cooperation in drug control.
762. Lack of structures for monitoring and reporting on drug-related issues is a long-standing problem for many countries in Oceania. The Pacific Drug and Alcohol Research Network brings countries in Oceania together to share information and expertise on drug-related issues. At the fifth Meeting of the Network, held in Vanuatu in July 2010, representatives of 11 States of the region and international organizations, including UNODC, reviewed the latest developments and trends in drug and alcohol abuse at the national and regional levels and reiterated the need for strengthened and coordinated efforts to collect, analyse and report drug-related data. They also identified the urgent need to develop and implement effective legislation. The Board acknowledges the efforts of the Network in promoting drug-related research and information-sharing in the region and encourages participating countries to continue their monitoring and reporting with respect to drug-related issues in the framework of the Network.
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763. In 2010, a joint initiative of the Asian Development Bank and the Government of Australia provided funding and training programmes to improve customs legislation and strengthen border control in Solomon Islands. Also in 2010, Australia launched the Framework for Law and Justice Engagement with the Pacific, aimed at strengthening legal and law enforcement cooperation throughout the region. Under the Framework, the Government of Australia is committed to supporting regional collaboration for combating transnational crime, including drug trafficking, with a focus on ensuring an appropriate legislative framework, the exchange of information, capacity-building, financial assistance and access to technical expertise.
764. Law enforcement agencies in Australia and New Zealand continued to provide support for capacity-building initiatives in Oceania. In June 2010, the Australian Federal Police and the Government of Papua New Guinea organized a workshop on drug trafficking and legislative reform in Papua New Guinea. Participants at the workshop shared the latest information on the situation with regard to trafficking in and illicit manufacture of drugs in Papua New Guinea and discussed possible legislative reforms to improve responses to emerging issues. With the assistance of the Australian Federal Police, the Pacific Transnational Crime Coordination Centre, established in 2004 and based in Samoa, continued to expand its network in the region. As of 2009, the network included seven transnational crime units, established in Fiji, Micronesia (Federated States of), Papua New Guinea, Samoa, Solomon Islands, Tonga and Vanuatu. The Coordination Centre analyses criminal intelligence data and will enhance the sharing of law enforcement intelligence in the region. In addition, Australia and New Zealand have provided assistance to the Tuvalu Police Force in establishing a database to manage crime statistics, which will enhance law enforcement capacity in Tuvalu.
765. The Board recognizes the efforts of countries in Oceania in combating drug-related crime with the support of bilateral assistance. The Board notes the lack of adequate resources and capacities in some countries to effectively tackle those problems. The Board encourages countries in the region, especially those that are not yet parties to the international drug control treaties, to continue their drug control efforts involving regional cooperation and capacity-building in order to be well equipped to ratify and implement the international drug control treaties.
3. National legislation, policy and action
766. Drug abuse among young people was the focus of the National Drugs Campaign in Australia launched in February 2010. The second stage of the campaign is aimed at reducing abuse of MDMA (“ecstasy”), methamphetamine and cannabis among young people by helping them understand the harm caused by drug abuse and directing them to counselling and treatment services. The Australian Customs (Prohibited Imports) Amendment Regulations 2009 (No. 6), which came into effect in March 2010, makes it illegal to import tablet presses without prior authorization.
767. In line with the national campaign targeting drug abuse among young people, in July 2010, the Government of Australia launched the National Youth Policing Model. The initiative identified six major strategies to tackle youth crime, including one to strengthen the police response to drug abuse among young people. Australian states and territories will adopt initiatives that help prevent young people from committing crime or becoming victims of crime. The Model also provides the police, communities and all levels of government with examples of effective local solutions to youth crime.
768. In October 2009, the Government of New Zealand launched a three-year national action plan to tackle the increasing problem of abuse of methamphetamine in the country. The comprehensive action plan contains relevant measures to be implemented by all the government agencies concerned. Under the action plan, New Zealand will restrict the availability of precursors used in the illicit manufacture of methamphetamine, improve treatment services for methamphetamine abusers and enhance school education and community programmes to reduce the illicit demand for methamphetamine. The Government has developed the new drug education guidelines for schools and will continue to support the Community Action on Youth and Drugs, with a focus on problems associated with methamphetamine abuse.
769. Under the New Zealand national action plan on methamphetamine, a number of legislative instruments have been implemented or are currently under review by the Government. The New Zealand Crimes Amendment Act 2009 strengthened the ability of the
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police to target gangs and organized criminal groups, which are responsible for a significant proportion of the activities involving illicit drug manufacture, trafficking and supply. The maximum penalty for participation in an organized criminal group has been extended from 5 to 10 years of imprisonment. Furthermore, with respect to treatment for drug abusers, the New Zealand Law Commission is reviewing the Alcoholism and Drug Addiction Act 1966 to include a new system for compulsory treatment for people with severe drug dependence.
770. In February 2010, the New Zealand Law Commission published an issues paper on the review of the Misuse of Drugs Act 1975. The paper included preliminary proposals to amend national drug laws to enable a better response to emerging issues related to drug control. For instance, the Law Commission proposed establishing a new control mechanism for substances not under international control and imposing strict control measures to prevent the abuse of prescription drugs. Moreover, on the issues of possession of drugs in small quantities and personal use of drugs, the paper proposed to place more emphasis on the delivery of effective treatment and less emphasis on conviction and punishment. The Board trusts that the Government will ensure that New Zealand fully complies with its obligations under the international drug control treaties when considering amendments to the national drug legislation.
771. In October 2009, the Government of Samoa adopted the Narcotics Amendment Act 2009, amending the Narcotics Act 1967. The Act established the penalty of life imprisonment for offences related to drugs such as cocaine, amphetamine and methamphetamine and included provisions on the control of substances listed in the Tables of the 1988 Convention. To prevent Samoa from becoming a transit area used by traffickers for shipping precursors used in the illicit manufacture of drugs, the Narcotic Amendment Act established severe penalties for all illegal activities associated with trafficking in and the diversion of precursor chemicals. The Board encourages Samoa to further strengthen drug control in line with its obligations under the international drug control conventions.
772. In 2009, the Government of the Cook Islands adopted the Narcotics and Misuse of Drugs Amendment Act 2009, amending the Narcotics and Misuse of Drugs Act 2004. Also in 2009, Papua New
Guinea passed the Dangerous Drugs Act 2009 to better respond to emerging challenges in drug control in the country. In December 2009, the Government of the Marshall Islands established a substance abuse prevention advisory council to lead national activities related to drug abuse prevention. The Government also endorsed the prevention strategies for the period 2010- 2014 for strengthening the role of communities in preventing drug abuse. In addition, a number of countries in Oceania, including Fiji and Vanuatu, are currently reviewing or reforming existing national drug control legislation.
773. Despite the progress in legislative reform in a few countries in Oceania, drug control legislation in many other countries in the region appears to be outdated and insufficient to respond to new issues such as the illicit manufacture of and trafficking in amphetamine-type stimulants. The Board urges the countries concerned to strengthen national drug control legislation to enable a better response to emerging issues.
4. Cultivation, production, manufacture and trafficking
Narcotics
774. Cannabis continues to be the drug seized most often in Oceania. As there is extensive illicit cultivation of cannabis plants in Oceania, smuggling of cannabis into the region remains at a low level. In the period 2008-2009, the number of domestic cannabis seizures in Australia reached the highest levels in 10 years — an increase of 12.5 per cent over the number of seizures in the period 2007-2008. However, the total amount of seized cannabis decreased from 8,900 kg in the period 2007-2008 to 5,600 kg in the period 2008-2009, a year-on-year decrease reflecting the large amount of cannabis seized (total: 3,500 kg) in the state of Queensland in the period 2007-2008. Regarding seizures of cannabis at the Australian border, most were of amounts less than 100 grams; over 50 per cent of the total amount seized had been smuggled in air cargo. In terms of the number of seizures of cannabis shipments at the Australian border, the Netherlands was the country most often identified as the country of departure, whereas over half of the total amount of cannabis seized at the Australian border involved shipments that had departed from the United States. The majority of the cannabis-related seizures at the Australian border involved
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seeds, which were believed to be for use in the illicit cultivation of cannabis plants on Australian territory.
775. In 2009, New Zealand reported having seized approximately 640 kg of cannabis, an amount similar to the amount seized in 2008. The New Zealand National Cannabis Crime Operation achieved significant results in the period 2008-2009: 141,000 cannabis plants were destroyed, and 190 firearms were seized by the police. In April 2010, in Operation Lime, which targeted the sale of equipment and materials used for illicitly cultivating cannabis plants, New Zealand Police detected about 150 sites used for illicitly cultivating cannabis plants indoors, and seized about 65 kg of drugs, including cannabis, methamphetamine and MDMA (“ecstasy”). Operation Lime also resulted in the seizure of a large number of weapons, which were believed to be closely linked with organized criminal groups.
776. The illicit cultivation of cannabis plants and the seizure of cannabis are increasingly being reported in Fiji, Papua New Guinea and Tonga. In Fiji, cannabis-related offences decreased significantly, by 42 per cent, from 2008 to 2009 (253 cases in 2008 compared with 148 cases in 2009). However, it appears that the illicit cultivation of cannabis has persisted in Fiji, despite the cannabis eradication campaigns conducted by the Fiji Police in the period 2009-2010 and the nationwide awareness-raising programmes carried out in recent years. In addition, cannabis plants have been illicitly cultivated in some remote areas where eradication is difficult. The Board urges the Governments concerned to take measures to address the problems of illicit cannabis plant cultivation and illicit cannabis production and trafficking in countries in Oceania.
777. The increasing illicit demand for cocaine in Australia is reflected in the fact that the amount of cocaine seized has remained relatively high since the period 2002-2003. During the period 2008-2009, the total amount of cocaine seized in Australia was about 1,100 kg, of which 506 kg were seized at the border. Colombia continues to be the main source of cocaine seized at the Australian border. Mexicans and South Americans with strong links to illicit cocaine manufacturers in South America were involved in the smuggling of most of the cocaine seized at the Australian border. During an 18-month operation in the period 2008-2009, the Australian authorities dismantled an international drug syndicate that had used airport staff to smuggle cocaine into the country. In June 2010, the Australian authorities seized 240 kg of cocaine concealed in stone pavers from Mexico; that was the fifth largest cocaine seizure in Australian history.
778. Customs authorities of Fiji and Papua New Guinea reported seizures of cocaine from South America and Central America that had been smuggled in air cargo and by air passengers. Although the total amount of cocaine seized was small, it indicated that those countries were being considered as possible new markets for the drug.
779. The total amount of heroin seized in Oceania remains low compared with seizure totals in other regions. However, the quantity of the heroin seized has increased since 2005. In Australia, the total amount of heroin seized in the period 2008-2009 (300 kg) was almost double the amount seized in the period 2007- 2008 (170 kg). While South-West Asia and South-East Asia continue to be major sources of the heroin smuggled into Australia, the number of countries from which heroin shipments depart for Australia increased significantly in the period 2008-2009, indicating that new smuggling routes are being used to smuggle the drug into the country. About 80 per cent of the heroin seized at the Australian border was smuggled in air cargo or by air passengers. South Africa was the country of departure for the largest shipment of heroin seized at the Australian border in the period 2008- 2009: about 18 kg that had been concealed in air cargo.
780. At the Australian border, the number of seizures of pharmaceutical preparations containing opioids increased from 12 in the period 2007-2008 to 20 in the period 2008-2009. Half of the seizures involved morphine, while most of the remaining seizures were of pharmaceutical preparations containing oxycodone or hydrocodone. Most of the pharmaceutical preparations were purchased on the Internet, a trend that the Australian authorities expect will continue. Most of the shipments seized in the period 2008-2009 had been concealed in mail originating in countries including France, India, South Africa, Thailand, the United Kingdom and the United States.
Psychotropic substances
781. The illicit manufacture of and trafficking in amphetamine-type stimulants continue to pose a great challenge for countries in Oceania. In Australia, the
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total amount of amphetamine-type stimulants (excluding MDMA (“ecstasy”)) seized at the border in the period 2008-2009 increased by 58 per cent compared with the period 2007-2008. Ninety per cent of the shipments of amphetamine-type stimulants seized had been sent in the mail. Most of the amphetamine-type stimulants seized at the Australian border were found in shipments that had departed from Hong Kong, China (50 per cent), followed by mainland China, Zambia, Canada and South Africa. Zambia was the country of departure of a seized shipment of 68 kg of amphetamine. Seizures of amphetamine-type stimulants continued to be reported in 2010. Most of the crystalline methamphetamine seized at the Australian border was found in shipments that had departed from, in descending order, Canada, Myanmar, the Lao People’s Democratic Republic, Cambodia, Indonesia and China. In January 2010, Australian law enforcement authorities seized 50 kg of crystalline methamphetamine that had been concealed in a shipment of car parts sent from China to Australia.
782. In New Zealand, seizures of methamphetamine continued to be reported in the period 2009-2010. Sources of the seized drug included, in descending order, the United States, China (including Hong Kong and Taiwan Province), and the United Kingdom. In 2010, law enforcement authorities in New Zealand seized methamphetamine smuggled by air passengers arriving from China (Hong Kong and Taiwan Province) and continued to dismantle clandestine methamphetamine laboratories in the country. An increasing number of women were involved in methamphetamine-related offences such as trafficking and illegal possession. As a result, since the period 2003-2004, the number of women serving prison sentences in New Zealand has almost doubled, and methamphetamine-related offences account for a significant proportion of the increase.
783. Increasing    numbers    of    seizures    of
methamphetamine have been reported in other parts of Oceania. In 2009, authorities of French Polynesia reported the seizure of 340 grams of crystalline methamphetamine. The drug had been concealed in liquid sent by mail from Mexico and had subsequently been transformed into high-purity crystalline form in a local laboratory. Smuggling of methamphetamine into French Polynesia was first reported in 2004 and continued in 2005 and 2006. In Tonga, methamphetamine was seized in 2009 and 2010. The seizures raise concerns about Tonga becoming a transshipment area used by drug traffickers.
784. Most of the amphetamine-type stimulants found on the illicit market in Oceania have been clandestinely manufactured within the region, as evidenced by the detection of an increasing number of clandestine laboratories. Although most of those clandestine laboratories are small, they pose a serious risk to communities, as many are located in residential areas. In Australia, detections of clandestine laboratories manufacturing amphetamine-type stimulants (including MDMA (“ecstasy”)) increased by 17 per cent, from 271 in the period 2007-2008 to 316 in the period 2008- 2009. Twenty-four clandestine laboratories seized in the period 2008-2009 were each found to have been illicitly manufacturing more than one type of drug, for instance, methamphetamine and “ecstasy” had been illicitly manufactured in the same laboratory. In New Zealand, clandestine laboratories are the predominant source of amphetamine-type stimulants. Approximately 137 such clandestine laboratories were dismantled in 2009. In 2010, seizures of clandestine laboratories manufacturing amphetamine-type stimulants continued to be reported. Organized crime syndicates were found to be illicitly manufacturing the drug and distributing it locally.
785. While the quantity of precursors of MDMA (“ecstasy”) seized at the Australian border in the period 2008-2009 was small, the illicit manufacture and supply of “ecstasy” in Australia appears to have continued. Seizures of clandestine laboratories for manufacturing “ecstasy” increased significantly in Australia, from 11 in the period 2007-2008 to 19 in the period 2008-2009. In January 2010, for the first time, the Australian authorities dismantled a clandestine laboratory that had been used to extract and process sassafras oil, a substance used in the illicit manufacture of “ecstasy”. New Zealand authorities seized about 14,000 “ecstasy” tablets in 2009.
Precursors
786. The total amount of precursors of amphetamine-type stimulants seized in Oceania has increased significantly in recent years. Pseudoephedrine contained in pharmaceutical preparations became the precursor most commonly seized in the region. In Australia, 2,014 kg of ephedrine and pseudoephedrine were seized at the border in the period 2008-2009,
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nearly double the total amount of all precursors seized in the period 2007-2008. Nearly 80 per cent of the seizures were of pseudoephedrine. Most of the pseudoephedrine seized had been shipped from China (including Hong Kong and Taiwan Province), New Zealand, Thailand and Viet Nam. In addition to being smuggled into Australia, a large amount of pseudoephedrine, including in the form of over-the-counter pharmaceutical preparations is diverted from domestic distribution channels in that country. In addition to ephedrine and pseudoephedrine, Australia reported seizures of 40 litres of sassafras oil in the period 2008-2009, destined for the illicit manufacture of MDMA (“ecstasy”) in the country. In 2009, Australian authorities seized a shipment of safrole that had departed from Papua New Guinea, indicating that traffickers are looking for new trafficking routes.
787. In New Zealand, the illicit importation of    pharmaceutical    preparations    containing
pseudoephedrine continues to pose a significant challenge for law enforcement authorities. Seizures of the substance reached a record high in 2009 (over 1 ton of cold medication containing pseudoephedrine was seized). China continues to be the main source of pharmaceutical preparations containing pseudoephedrine seized at the New Zealand border. Some of those preparations had been smuggled out of New Zealand into Australia. Many of the shipments seized were found to have been organized by criminal groups using teenagers. Furthermore, over-the-counter medicines containing pseudoephedrine continue to be diverted in New Zealand.
788. The Board is concerned about the use of countries in Oceania as trans-shipment areas for precursor chemicals destined for use in illicit drug manufacture in Australia and New Zealand. Evidence shows that traffickers have attempted to smuggle pharmaceutical preparations containing pseudoephedrine from several countries, including Fiji, Papua New Guinea and Tonga, into New Zealand. Some of those preparations appear to have been diverted from licit distribution channels in those countries. In order to prevent the diversion of over-the-counter medicines containing pseudoephedrine, the Fiji authorities have strengthened regulations to require registration of sales of such medicines and restrict the quantity of each transaction.
Substances not under international control
789. In Australia, illicit drug manufacturers continue to look for precursors not under international control that can be used for the illicit manufacture of amphetamine-type stimulants. While the extraction of ephedrine and pseudoephedrine from medicine used for treating colds continues to be a common method of obtaining those two precursors of amphetamine-type stimulants, restrictions on the sale of pharmaceutical preparations containing ephedrine and pseudoephedrine have forced illicit drug manufacturers to look for alternative precursors not under international or national control. For instance, in 2008, the Australian authorities dismantled a clandestine laboratory that produced l-phenylacetylcarbinol, a precursor of ephedrine and pseudoephedrine. Furthermore, in 2009, about 28 kg of ephedra, a plant containing ephedrine, were seized at the Australian border. In view of the increasing trend of using precursors not under international control for the illicit manufacture of drugs, the Board urges countries in Oceania to apply appropriate control to those substances and to provide the Board with any information available on precursors not under international control and new methods used for the illicit manufacture of drugs.
790. In recent years, the New Zealand customs authorities have seen increasing illicit importation of mephedrone into the country. Mephedrone is an analogue of methcathinone (also known as 4-methylmethcathinone, or 4-MMC and “meow”) and is reported to have effects similar to those of cocaine and MDMA (“ecstasy”). While the substance is not under international control, it is subject to national control in a number of countries, including Australia and New Zealand. The first seizure of mephedrone by the New Zealand authorities was made in November 2009. As at January 2010, a total of 15 seizures of mephedrone were made in New Zealand, mostly of shipments sent in the mail from China or the United Kingdom.
5. Abuse and treatment
791. According to the results of the 2007/08 New Zealand Alcohol and Drug Use Survey, one in six adults aged 16-64 years (16.6 per cent) had used illicit drugs in the past year. Among them, young people aged 16-34 years were more likely than other age groups to have used illicit drugs. Among the
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Chapter III. Analysis of the world situation
past-year drug abusers, only about 3 per cent had received assistance in the past year. The Board encourages the Government of New Zealand to provide better assistance and treatment services for people with drug-related problems.
792. Cannabis continues to be the most widely abused drug in Oceania. In New Zealand, the annual prevalence rate of cannabis abuse among individuals aged 14-64 years was 14.6 per cent in 2008. Although the rate decreased slightly from 2003, it was among the highest in the world. About 13.4 per cent of past-year cannabis abusers had used cannabis daily; about
54 per cent had used cannabis at least once per month in the past year. Cannabis abuse among young people is an increasing concern in New Zealand. The population aged 18-24 years had the highest prevalence rate of past-year cannabis abuse of all age groups. Among individuals who had ever used cannabis, 16.2 per cent had first tried cannabis when they were 14 years or younger, and 80 per cent had first tried cannabis between the ages of 14 and 20 years.
793. Cannabis abuse among young people was also widespread in countries in Oceania other than New Zealand. Lifetime prevalence of cannabis abuse in Fiji and Papua New Guinea was about 47 per cent and
55 per cent, respectively, with an average age of first use of about 18 years. In Fiji, the abuse of cannabis among students in primary and secondary schools increased steadily from 1999 to 2005. In Palau, annual prevalence of abuse was about 24 per cent among people aged 16-64 years. According to the 2009 Palau Youth Risk Behaviour Survey, lifetime prevalence of cannabis abuse among students in secondary schools was about 60 per cent, a significant increase from the 49 per cent recorded in 2005. Among them, 29 per cent of males and 10 per cent of females first tried cannabis before the age of 13 years. In addition, Solomon Islands and Vanuatu reported that about 50 per cent of persons aged 15-24 years had tried cannabis. Micronesia (Federated States of) and Tonga also reported increased cannabis abuse in recent years.
794. Although annual prevalence of abuse of amphetamines (excluding MDMA (“ecstasy”)) has been decreasing over the years in Oceania, it remains high compared with other regions. In 2008, Australia reported decreased abuse of methamphetamine among persons who regularly abused drugs by injection. The 2007/08 New Zealand Alcohol and Drug Use
Survey shows that annual prevalence of abuse of amphetamines in the country decreased from about 3 per cent in 2003 to 2.1 per cent in 2008. Young males aged 18-24 years had the highest annual prevalence of abuse of amphetamines among all population segments.
795. Abuse of other types of amphetamines is very limited in most countries in Oceania except Australia and New Zealand. Nevertheless, increased availability and abuse of amphetamines (including MDMA (“ecstasy”)) in Fiji was reported by the Fiji Police Force in 2009. In Palau, annual prevalence of abuse of amphetamines in 2007 was about 1.6 per cent. Lifetime prevalence of abuse of amphetamines in Palau is about 7 per cent, which is among the highest rates in the region.
796. Annual prevalence of abuse of MDMA (“ecstasy”) in Oceania has been increasing steadily in recent years, Australia having the highest annual prevalence of such abuse worldwide. In Australia and New Zealand, “ecstasy” has replaced amphetamines as the second most abused drug. In Australia, annual prevalence of abuse of amphetamines increased from 0.9 per cent in 1995 to 3.5 per cent in 2007. Similarly, in New Zealand, annual prevalence of such abuse among the population aged 16-64 years increased from 2.3 per cent in 2003 to 3.3 per cent in 2008. The increasing abuse of “ecstasy” may lead to increased demand for the substance in the region.
797. Drug abuse by injection continues to be reported in Australia and New Zealand. In Australia, the average age of first-time abuse of drugs by injection is about 19 years. A 2009 Australian national survey revealed that the drug most commonly abused by injection was heroin (37 per cent), followed by methamphetamine (26 per cent). In 2009, New Zealand reported that approximately 30,000 people in the country had abused drugs by injection during their lifetime.
798. The Government of Australia has conducted surveys of drug abuse among criminal offenders in recent years. Although drug abuse among police detainees has declined, the issue of drug abuse in prison is an increasing concern for the Australian authorities. It is estimated that 71 per cent of prisoners have abused drugs in the past 12 months. Female inmates reported a higher level of drug abuse, including by injection, than did male inmates. The inmate population segment with the highest proportion
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of drug abuse in the past 12 months was that of prisoners aged 25-34 years (77 per cent) and the lowest rate of abuse was that of prisoners aged 45 years or older (43 per cent). The drug most frequently abused by prisoners in the past year was cannabis (52 per cent), followed by amphetamines (30 per cent), heroin (19 per cent) and MDMA (“ecstasy”) (18 per cent). About 55 per cent of prisoners had at some point in their life abused drugs by injection. Of those who had abused drugs by injection, 15 per cent had shared injection equipment with others. The needle exchange programme and opioid substitution treatment were available in prisons.
799. In Australia, substitution therapy is one treatment option for people dependent on opioids. According to an annual survey by the Government of Australia, as at 30 June 2009, a total of 43,445 persons were receiving pharmacotherapy treatment, a number that had slowly increased since 1998. Of that total, 70 per cent received methadone, and the remainder received buprenorphine or buprenorphine/naloxone, a trend that has remained stable since 2006. A total of 1,350 prescribers were authorized to prescribe pharmacotherapy treatment in the country, each prescriber having on average 32 patients. In 2009, there were approximately 2,150 dosing points in Australia, most of which (85 per cent) were located in pharmacies.
800. The drug treatment units located in the prisons of New Zealand continue to contribute to reducing drug abuse among prisoners. Under the Department of Correction’s drug and alcohol strategy for the period 2009-2014, three new drug treatment units will be established, and annual participation is expected to increase from 500 to 1,000 prisoners. In addition to a six-month treatment programme offered to prisoners serving more than 12 months, the drug treatment units offer an intensive three-month programme for people serving less than 12 months. Methadone maintenance treatment for opioid-dependent prisoners is part of the programme.
801. Even though Australia and New Zealand have comprehensive drug treatment response programmes, they are still facing the problem of insufficient treatment capacity, which may limit the effective delivery of treatment service. In Australia, there is a shortage of qualified general practitioners who can prescribe pharmacotherapy treatment. In New Zealand, only about 24,000 people are treated each year for alcohol and drug dependence through the publicly funded health system. Currently, there are about 630 alcohol and drug treatment residential beds, 100 of which are suitable for moderate or severe abusers. Measures are being taken by the Governments of Australia and New Zealand to address this issue. Australia will provide funding to train more qualified doctors. In New Zealand, funding will be provided for 80 additional treatment beds by 2012, so that an additional 3,100 drug addicts can receive treatment.
802. In Fiji and Papua New Guinea, treatment for drug abuse is mostly provided by general and psychiatric hospitals. Cannabis abuse was the most common problem for which drug abusers sought treatment. In Fiji’s hospitals, in 2008, a total of 178 patients were treated for substance abuse problems; 60 per cent of those patients were treated for cannabis abuse. Papua New Guinea reported a lack of financial and other resources for treatment of drug abuse. In view of the increasing abuse of drugs in those countries, the Board encourages Australia and New Zealand to share expertise and provide assistance to improve treatment services for drug abusers in other countries in Oceania.
803. During the period 2009-2010, awareness-raising and education programmes aimed at reducing drug abuse were launched in Fiji, Papua New Guinea and Tonga. In response to the increasing abuse of cannabis in primary and secondary schools throughout the country, the Ministry of Health of Fiji launched the drug-free school concept in 2010, on the International Day against Drug Abuse and Illicit Trafficking. In 736 primary schools and 174 secondary schools in Fiji, many activities focusing on the harm caused by drug abuse were organized with a view to reducing drug abuse among students. In addition, the Fiji National Substance Abuse Advisory Council conducted training programmes related to drug abuse and the prevention of HIV/AIDS for community leaders, teachers and staff of government agencies and non-governmental organizations. Moreover, training workshops for inmates and prison officers took place in Fiji’s prisons. In 2009, the authorities of Papua New Guinea provided training workshops for health-care professionals and medical students. In Tonga, the Tonga Alcohol and Drug Awareness Centre organized weekly training programmes in schools and drug and alcohol abuse awareness-raising workshops in prisons and provided training for staff of non-governmental organizations.

27 World Drug Report 2010 (United Nations publication, Sales No. E.10.XI.13), p. 207.