References

Alvarez EH. Economic Development, Restructuring and the Illicit Drug Sector in Bolivia and Peru: Current Policies. Journal
of Interamerican Studies and World Affairs, 1995, 37(3) Special Issue: Report on Neoliberal Restructuring: 125–149.
Becker G, Grossman M and Murphy K. The Economic Theory of Illegal Goods: The Case of Drugs. Journal of Political
Economy, 2006, 114 (1): 38-61
Beckwith CG, Moreira CC, Aboshady HM, et al. A success story: HIV prevention for injection drug users in Rhode Island.
Substance Abuse and Treatment Prevention Policy, 2006, 1: 34.
Benjet C, Borges G, Medina-Mora ME, et al. Prevalence and socio-demographic correlates of drug use among adolescents:
results from the Mexican Adolescent Mental Health Survey. Addiction, 2007, 102(8): 1261-1268.
Bennett T, Holloway K. Understanding drugs, alcohol and crime. Maidenhead, Open University Press, 2005.
Bourgois P. In Search of Respect: Selling Crack in El Barrio (2nd edition). New York, Cambridge University Press, 2002.
Bovenkerk F, Yesilgöz Y. The Turkish mafia and the state. In: Fijnaut C, Paoli L (eds). Organised crime in Europe: Concepts,
patterns and control policies in the European Union and beyond. Dordrecht: Springer 2004: 585–602.
Bretteville-Jensen A-L. Drug Demand: Initiation, Continuation and Quitting. The Economist, 2006, 154 (4): 491-516.
Buddenberg D, Byrd WA (ed.). Afghanistan’s Drug Industry: Structure, Functioning, Dynamics and Implications for
Counter-Narcotics Policy. New York, UNODC and World Bank, 2006.
Byrd W, Jonglez O. Prices and Market Interactions in the Opium Economy. In: Buddenberg D, Byrd WA (ed.). Afghanistan’s
Drug Industry: Structure, Functioning, Dynamics and Implications for Counter-Narcotics Policy. New York, UNODC and
World Bank, 2006: 129-154.
Caulkins JP. Comment. Journal of the American Statistical Association, 2001, 96(456): 1263-1264.
Caulkins JP, Behrens DA, Knoll C, Tragler G, and Zuba D. Modeling Dynamic Trajectories of Initiation and Demand: The
Case of the US Cocaine Epidemic. Health Care Management Science, 2004, 7(4): 319-329.
Caulkins J, Reuter P, Taylor L. Can Supply Restrictions Lower Price: Illegal Drugs, Violence and Positional Advantage.
Contributions to Economic Analysis and Policy, 2005.
Caulkins JP, Pacula R. Marijuana Markets: Inferences from Reports by the Household Population. Journal of Drug Issues,
2006, 36(1): 173-200.
Chandra, S. What the Numbers Really Tell Us about the Decline of the Opium Regie. Indonesia, 2000, 70: 101-123.
Chu TX, Levy JA. Injection drug use and HIV/AIDS transmission in China. Cell Research, 2005, 15: 865-869.
Available: www.nature.com/cr/journal/v15/n11/abs/7290360a.html, last accessed 15 January, 2009.
Cillufo F. The threat posed from the convergence of organized crime, drug trafficking, and terrorism. Before the U.S. House
Committee on the Judiciary Subcommittee on Crime, December 13, 2000.
Available: www.theantidrug.com/pdfs/fcilluffo.pdf, last accessed 15 January 2009.
Clear RD. United States and the Politics of Syringe Exchange. Available: globalhealth.org/reports/report.php3?id=316, last
accessed 15 January 2009.
Cook C, Kanaef N. Global state of harm reduction 2008. Mapping the response to drug-related HIV and hepatitis C
epidemics. London, International Harm Reduction Association (IHRA), 2008.
Costa AM. Making drug control ‘fit for purpose’: Building on the UNGASS decade. Statement of the Executive Director of
the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, 2008.
De Angelis D, Hickman M, Yang, S. Estimating long-term trends in the incidence and prevalence of opiate use/injecting
drug use and number of former users: back calculation methods and opiate overdose deaths. American Journal of
Epidemiology, 2004, 160: 994-1004.
Degenhardt L, Reuter P, Collins L, Hall W. Evaluating Factors Responsible for Australia’s Heroin Shortage. Addiction, 2005,
100: 459–469.
Domestic cannabis eradication / suppression program. Available: www.usdoj.gov/dea/programs/marijuana.htm, last
accessed 15 January 2009.
EMCDDA. Annual Report 2008: The State of the Drug Problem in Europe. Lisbon, European Monitoring Centre for Drugs
and Drug Addiction, 2008.
EMCDDA Drug-related death in Europe. Quality and comparability of data on drug-related deaths. Reitox Sub-task 3.3.
Lisbon, European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction, 1997.
Everingham SS, Rydell CP. Modeling the Demand for Cocaine. Santa Monica, CA. RAND, 1994.
Fischer B, Oviedo-Joekes E, Blanken P, Haasen C, Rehm J, Schechter M, Strang J, van den Brink W. Heroin-assisted Treatment
(HAT) a Decade Later: A Brief Update on Science and Politics. Journal of Urban Health, 2007, 84 (4): 552-562.

Galduroz JC, Noto AR, Nappo SA, Carlini EA. Use of psychotropic drugs in Brazil: household survey in the 107 biggest
Brazilian cities - 2001. Rev Lat Am Enfermagem, 2005, 13: 888–895.
Gamella JF, Rodrigo MLJ. Multinational export-import ventures: Moroccan hashish into Europe though Spain. In: EMCDDA).
A cannabis reader: global issues and local experiences, Volume I. Lisbon, European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug
Addiction, 2008: 261-289.
Gebauer M. Afghanistan Donor Conference: Diplomats offer Karzai firm words. Speigel Online, 12 June 2008.
Available: www.spiegel.de/international/world/0,1518,559410,00.html, last accessed 16 January 2009.
Grossman M. Individual Behaviours and Substance Use: The Role of Price. NBER Working Paper 10948, 2004.
Available: www.nber.org/papers/w10948.
Europol. Amphetamine-type stimulants in the European Union 1998-2007. Europol contribution to the Expert Consultations
for the UNGASS assessment. The Hague, Europol, 2007.
Gossop M, Marsden J, Stewart D, Kidd T. National Treatment Outcome Research Study (NTORS): 4-5 year follow-up Results.
Addiction, 2003, 98: 291-303.
Gottfredson D. Schools. In: Sherman et al. Preventing Crime. Washington, D.C., Office of Justice Programs, 1997.
Hall W, Pacula R. Marijuana Use and Dependence: Public Health and Public Policy. New York, Cambridge University Press,
2003.
Hao W, Su Z, Xiao S, Fan C, Chen H, Liu T, Young D. Longitudinal surveys of prevalence rates and use patterns of illicit drugs
at selected high-prevalence areas in China from 1993 to 2000. Addiction, 2004, 99: 1176-1180.
Higgins S, Budney AJ, Bickel W, Foerg F, Donham R, Badger GJ. Incentives Improve Outcome in Outpatient Behavioural
Treatment of Cocaine Dependence. Arch Gen Psychiatry, 1994, 51(7): 568-576.
Horowitz JL. Should the DEA’s STRIDE data be used for economic analysis of markets for illegal drugs? Journal of the
American Statistical Association, 2001, 96(456): 1254-1262.
Hser Y, Hoffman V, Grella CE, Anglin MD. A 33-year follow-up of narcotics addicts. Archives of General Psychiatry, 2001, 58:
503-508.
Hunt LG. Recent spread of heroin use in the United States. American Journal of Public Health, 1974, 64 (Supplement): 16–23.
Institute of Medicine. Preventing HIV Infection among Injecting Drug Users in High Risk Countries: An Assessment of the
Evidence Washington, National Academy Press, 2006.
Islamic Republic of Afghanistan. Press Release: President Karzai hails the result of the 2005 annual opium poppy survey
and calls for extra assistance towards alternative livelihoods. Office of the Spokesman to the President, 29 August 2005.
Available: www.president.gov.af/english/statements_press_releases/29_august_05_pr.mspx, last accessed 15 January 2009.
Islamic Republic of Afghanistan. President Karzai attends second conference on counter-narcotics. Office of the President,
2006. Available: www.president.gov.af/english/news/220806_Secondconference2nc.mspx, last accessed 15 January 2009.
Johnston LD, O’Malley PM, Bachman JG, Schulenberg JE. Overall, illicit drug use by American teens continues gradual decline in
2007. Ann Arbor, MI, University of Michigan News Service, December 11, 2007, Tables 11-13.
Available: www.monitoringthefuture.org/data/07data.html, last accessed 15 January 2009.
Kalian M. Enforcement Swamping: A Positive-Feedback Mechanism in Rates of Illicit Activity. Mathematical & Computer
Modeling, 1993, 17 (2), January, p 65-75.
Kramer T. 2005. Ethnic Conflict and Dilemma for International Engagement. In: Jelsma M, Kramer T, and Vervest P. (eds.).
Trouble in the Triangle: Opium and Conflict in Burma. Chiang Mai, Silkworm, 2005: 33–60.
Kuziemko I, Levitt S. An Empirical Analysis of Imprisoning Drug Offenders. Journal of Public Economics, 2004, 88: 2043-2066.
Legget T, Pietschmann T. Global Cannabis Cultivation and Production. In: EMCDDA. A cannabis reader: global issues and
local experiences, Volume I. Lisbon, European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction, 2008: 187-212.
Levitt S, Venkatesh SA. An Economic Analysis of a Drug-Selling Gang’s Finances. Quarterly Journal of Economics, 2000,
115(3): 755-789.
MacCoun RJ, Reuter P. Drug War Heresies: Learning from other Vices, Times and Places. New York, Cambridge University
Press, 2001.
Manski C, Pepper J, Petrie C (eds.). Informing America’s Policy on Illegal Drugs: What We Don’t Know can Hurt us.
Washington, National Academy Press, 2001.
Mathers B, Degenhardt L, Phillips B, Wiessing L, Hickman M, Strathdee S, Wodak A, Panda S, Tyndall M, Toufik A, Mattick
RP. 2007 Reference Group to the UN on HIV and Injecting Drug Use.) Global epidemiology of injecting drug use and
HIV among people who inject drugs: a systematic review. Vienna, UNAIDS, 2008.
Matrix Knowledge Group. The illicit drug trade in the United Kingdom. London, Home Office, 2007.
McKetin R, McLaren J, Kelly E, Hall W, Hickman M. Estimating the Number of Regular and Dependent Methamphetamine
Users in Australia. Sydney, National Drug and Alcohol Research Center, 2005.
Available: ndarc.med.unsw.edu.au/NDARCWeb.nsf/resources/TRES_2/$file/TR.ES230.pdf, last accessed 13 February 2009.

McLellan AT, Meyers K. Contemporary addiction treatment: a review of systems problems for adults and adolescents.
Biological Psychiatry, 2004, 56: 764-770.
Moore TJ. What is Australia’s Drug Budget? Drug Policy Modelling Program Monograph 1, 2005.
Available: www.dpmp.unsw.edu.au/DPMPWeb.nsf/resources/DPMP+Monographs1/$file/DPMP+MONO+1.pdf.
Mumola CJ, Karberg JC. Drug Use and Dependence, State and Federal Prisoners, 2004. Bureau of Justice Statistics Special
Report. Bureau of Justice, Statistics: October, 2006, NCJ 213530. Available: www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs/pub/pdf/dudsfp04.pdf,
last accessed 15 January 2009.
Nadelmann E. Drug prohibition in the United States: Costs, consequences, and alternatives. Science, 1989, 245: 939-947.
Nolan J. Reinventing Justice: The American Drug Court Movement Princeton, Princeton University Press, 2008.
Nordt C, Stohler R. Incidence of Heroin Use in Zurich, Switzerland: A Treatment Case Register Analysis. The Lancet, 2006,
367(9525): 1830–1834.
ONDCP. What America’s Users Spend on Illicit Drugs 1988-2000. Washington, D.C., Executive Office of the President, 2001.
ONDCP. The Price of Illicit Drugs 3rd quarter 1981 to 2ndquarter 2003. Washington D.C., the Executive Office of the
President, 2004.
Paoli L. Flexible Hierarchies and Dynamic Disorder: The Drug Distribution System in Frankfurt and Milan. Drugs: Education,
Prevention and Policy, 9 (2): 143-151.
Paoli L, Reuter P. Drug trafficking and ethnic minorities in Western Europe. European Journal of Criminology, 2008, 5 (1):
13–37.
Paoli L, Greenfield V, and Reuter P. The World Heroin Market: Can Supply be Cut? New York, Oxford University Press, 2009.
Parliament of the Commonwealth of Australia. Asian Organized Crime in Australia: A Discussion Paper by the Parliamentary
Joint Committee on the National Crime Authority. Canberra, 1995.
Pearson G, Hobbes D. Middle market drug distribution. Home Office Research Study no. 227. London, Home Office, 2001.
Ramstedt M. What drug policies cost. Estimating drug policy expenditures in Sweden. Addiction, 2006, 101: 330–338.
Rehm J, Room R, van den Brink W, Kraus L. Problematic drug use and drug use disorders in EU countries and Norway: An
overview of the epidemiology. European Neuropsychopharmacology, 15: 389–397.
Reuter P. The Mismeasurement of Illegal Drug Markets: The Implications of Its Irrelevance. In: Pozo, S. (ed.). The Underground
Economy. Kalamazoo, Mich, W.E. Upjohn Institute for Employment Research, 1996: 63-80.
Reuter P, Kalian MA. Risks and Prices: An Economic Analysis of Drug Enforcement. In: Morris N and Tonry M (eds.). Crime and
Justice: An Annual Review of Research. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1986, 7.
Reuter P, Truman E. Chasing Dirty Money: The Fight against Money Laundering. The Institute for International Economics, 2004.
Reuter P, Stevens A. An Analysis of UK Drug Policy UK Drug Policy Commission, 2007.
Rigter H. What drug policies cost. Drug policy expenditures in the Netherlands, 2003. Addiction, 2006, 101: 323–329.
Rödner Sznitman S, Olsson B, Room R. (eds.). A cannabis reader: global issues and local experiences. European Monitoring
Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction, 2008.
Room R, Fischer B, Hall W, Lenton S, and Reuter P. Cannabis Policy: Moving beyond the Stalemate. 2008.
Available: www.beckleyfoundation.org/pdf/BF_Cannabis_Commission_Report.pdf, last accessed 11 December 2008.
Rubin B, Sherman J. Counter-Narcotics to Stabilize Afghanistan: The False Promise of Crop Eradication. New York: Centre on
International Cooperation, February. Available: www.cic.nyu.edu/afghanistan/docs/counternarcoticsfi nal.pdf, last accessed
April 2008.
Samii B. Iran: Drug Control gets New Emphasis as Crack Gains Popularity” Eurasianet, 2006.
Available: www.eurasianet.org/departments/insight/articles/pp040606.shtml, last accessed 15 February, 2009.
Samples F, Aber L. Evaluations of school-based violence prevention programs. In: Elliott, Hamburg and Williams (eds.) Violence
in American Schools Cambridge. Cambridge University Press, 1998: 217-252.
Schloenhardt A. The Market for Amphetamine-Type Stimulants and Their Precursors in Oceania, Canberra, Australia, Australian
Institute of Criminology, 2007.
Schweich T. Is Afghanistan a Narco-State? New York Times magazine, July 27, 2008.
Sevigny E, Caulkins JP. Kingpins or Mules? An Analysis of Drug Offenders Incarcerated in Federal and State Prisons.
Criminology and Public Policy, 2004, 3(3): 401-434.
Sheehan M. Testimony before the House Judiciary Committee. Subcommittee on Crime, Washington, DC, December 13,
2000. Available: www.milnet.com/state/sheehan-121300.htm, last accessed 16 January 2009.
Single E et al. International Guidelines for the Estimation of the Avoidable Costs of Substance Abuse, Geneva, World Health
Organization, 2003.
Srisurapanont M, Jarusuraisin N, Kittirattanapaiboon P. Treatment for amphetamine dependence and abuse. Cochrane
database of systematic reviews CD003022 2001. Available: www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11687171, last accessed
15 February 2009.

Stevens A. When two dark figures collide: Evidence and discourse on drug-related crime. Critical Social Policy, 2007, 27(1):
77-99.
Stevenson M. (2008) “Mexico’s top federal police official quits amidst probe” Associated Press, 1 November Available:
www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/11/01/AR2008110101550.html, last accessed 2 November,
2008.
Sullivan K. Route of Evil: How a Tiny West African Nation Became a Key Smuggling Hub For Colombian Cocaine, and the
Price It Is Paying. Washington Post 25 May, 2008, A01.
Thoumi F. Illegal Drugs, Economy and Society in the Andes, Baltimore, The Johns Hopkins University Press, 2003.
Tragler G, Caulkins JP, Feichtinger G. Optimal Dynamic Allocation of Treatment and Enforcement in Illicit Drug Control.
Operations Research, 2001, 49(3): 352-362.
Trimbos Institute. Prevention and reduction of health-related harm associated with drug dependence: An inventory of policies,
evidence and practices in the EU relevant to the implementation of the Council Recommendation of 18 June 2003,
Utrecht, Netherlands, 2006.
UNODC, United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (annual). World Drug Report Vienna, United Nations.
UNODC. The Opium Economy in Afghanistan: An International Problem, Vienna, United Nations, 2003.
UNODC. Patterns and Trends in Amphetamine Type Stimulants in East Asia and the Pacific Regional Center for East Asia and
Pacific, 2005.
UNODC. Responding to drug use and HIV in Iran. November, 2008.
Available: www.unodc.org/unodc/en/frontpage/responding-to-drug-use-and-hiv-in-iran.html, last accessed 15 January 2009.
U.K. Home Office. Drugs: protecting families and communities. London, 2008.
U.S. Department of State, Bureau of International Narcotics and Law Enforcement Affairs. (annual) International Narcotics
Control Strategy Report. Washington, D.C.: Bureau of International Narcotics and Law Enforcement Affairs, U.S.
Department of State. Available: www.state.gov/p/inl/rls/nrcrpt/.
Urbanosk KA, Strike CJ, and Rush B. Individuals Seeking Treatment for Cannabis-Related Problems in Ontario: Demographic
and Treatment Profile. European Addiction Research, 2005, 11: 115–123.
Van der Gouwe D, Gallà M, Van Gageldonk A, Croes E, Engelhardt J, Van Laar M, Buster M. Prevention and reduction of
health-related harm associated with drug dependence: an inventory of policies, evidence and practices in the EU relevant
to the implementation of the Council Recommendation of 18 June 2003. Utrecht, Trimbos Institute, 2006.
Weatherburn D and Jones C. Does prohibition deter cannabis use? Crime Bulletin Number 58, Bureau of Crime Statistics and
Research. Sydney: NSW Attorney General’s Department, (2001).
Available: www.lawlink.nsw.gov.au/lawlink/bocsar/ll_bocsar.nsf/vwFiles/cjb58.pdf/$file/cjb58.pdf.
Weatherburn D, Jones C, Freeman K, Makkai T. Supply Control and Harm Reduction: Lessons from the Australian Heroin
‘Drought.’ Addiction, 2003, 98: 83–91.
World Bank and UNODC. Crime, Violence and Development: Trends, Costs, and Policy Options in the Caribbean.
Washington. D.C. The World Bank. 2007.
Zaluar A. Violence in Rio de Janeiro: styles of leisure, drug use and trafficking. UNESCO. 2004: 369-378.
•