Appendix

1. Ch'en Ching-jen, "Opium and Anglo-Chinese Relations," Chinese Social and Political Science Review 19 (1935-1936), 386-437, 386-388.

2. Hosea Ballou Morse, The International Relations of the Chinese Empire, vol. 1. (London: Longmans Green, 1910), pp. 172-173.

3. For a brief account see David Edward Owen, British Opium Policy in India and China (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1934), P. 10.

4. Ibid., pp. 22 ff.

5. Ibid., p. 23.

6. Throughout much of the nineteenth century, India controlled the trade of the Far East through an export surplus that consisted chiefly of opium (E. J. Hobsbawn, Industry and Empire: The Pelican Economic History of the British Empire, vol. 3, 1750 to the Present [Harmondsworth, England: Penguin Books, 1969], p. 149).

7. Owen, British Opium Policy in India and China, p. 37.

8. Ibid., p. vii.

9. Ibid., pp. 80-81.

10. Ibid., p. 87, quoting governor-general in council to the Court of Directors (of the East India Company), July 30 1819, in India Office Letters from Bengal, vol. 81.

11. No more than one-tenth of the total importation of opium from both India and the Middle East was carried on American ships or received on consignment by American firms (Arnold H. Taylor, American Diplomacy and the Narcotics Traffic 1900-1939: A Study in International Humanitarian Reform [Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 19691, p. 8).

12. Chang Hsin-pao, Commissioner Lin and the Opium War (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1964), pp. 41, 132.

13. These and many other Chinese antiopiurn regulations are quoted and discussed in Yu En-te, Chung-kuo chin yen fa-ling pien-ch'ien shih (History of the Changes in Chinese Antiopium Laws) (Shanghai: China Press, 1934), pp. 16 ff.

14. Frederick Wakeman, Jr., "Les soci6t6s secr&es du Guangdong (18001856)," in Jean Chesneaux, Feiling Davis and Nguyen Nguyet Ho, eds., Mouvements populaires et Soci&js secr&es en Chine aux XIXe et XXe Si~cles (Paris: Frangois Maspero, 1970), p. 93.

15. Opium was exported from India in chests. According to H. B. Morse, Malwa and Persian opium weighed 135 pounds per chest and Bengal opium weighed 160 pounds (Hosea Ballou Morse, The Trade and Administration of China [London: Longmans Green, 19131, p. 355).

16. Owen, British Opium Policy in India and China, p. 80.

17. The East India Company's monopoly of the Britain-Asia trade was ended in 1834. The company had been undermined by the development of Singapore as a port, by its own inefficiency, and by increasing pressure from advocates of "free trade," by which they meant trade that would be government supported but not controlled. As a result the number of resident British merchants engaged in the China trade at Canton jumped from 66 in-1834 to 156 three years later (Maurice Collis, Foreign Mud: Being an account of the Opium Imbroglio at Canton in the 1830's and the Anglo-Chinese war that followed [London: Faber & Faber, 19641, p. 55).

18. Arthur Waley, The Opium War Through Chinese Eyes (London: George Allen and Unwin, 1958), p. 176.

19. China, Inspectorate General of Customs, Imperial Maritime Customs, Opium 11, Special Series no. 4 (Shanghai: Statistical Department of the Inspectorate General, 1881), p. 1.

20. Morse, The Trade and Administration of China, p. 378.

21. Great Britain, Parliamentary Papers (1894), Reverend Hudson Taylor's testimony to the Royal Commission on Opium, Minutes of Evidence and Appendices, vol. 1, p. 30.

22. China, Inspectorate General of Customs, Imperial Maritime Customs, Native Opium 1887 11, Special Series no. 9 (R. E. Bredon, Hankow no. 385, June 17, 1887) p. 18.

23. S. A. M. Adshead, "Opium in Szechwan 1881-1911," in Journal of Southeast Asian History 7, no. 2 (September 1966), 93-99, 96. See also W. Donald Spence, Acting British Consul at Ichang, to the Assistant Secretary of India Finance and Commerce Department, no. 13 (confidential), April 11, 1882, in Parliamentary Papers, 1894, Royal Commission on Opium, vol. 2, app. 12, p. 384.

24. W. Donald Spence estimates that by the early 1880s the Szechwan government made not less than 1.5 million taels (Chinese dollars) per year from opium (Spence, to the Assistant Secretary of India Finance and Commerce Department), p. 384.

25. Spence puts total production in 1881 at over 21 million pounds of which almost 17 million pounds was exported (ibid., p. 387). A similar figure for Szechwan is given by R. E. Bredon, Hankow no. 385, in Native Opium 1887.

26. Spence, to the Assistant Secretary of India Finance and Commerce Department, p. 385.

27. Consul-General Litton of Yunnanfu to Rangoon Chamber of Commerce, October 3, 1903, enclosure in Southwest China Confidential, February 23, 1905 (FO 228/2414) in Great Britain, Foreign Office, Embassy and Consular Archives. China, Correspondence on Opium (FO 228/2414-2466 [1905-19171 and FO 228/3357-3371 [19181927]). These documents are in the Public Record Office in London. Hereafter all citations from these documents are given only by the reference number. Unless otherwise indicated, citations are communications from consul s-ge n eral, consuls or acting consuls, and are addressed to the chief of mission, either His Brittanic Majesty's Minister or his charg6 d'affaires in Peking. "Confidential" indicates that the document was intended only for staff circulation.

28. As is true of most statistics on opium in China, estimates of numbers of smokers vary tremendously. This figure is rather conservative. Compare, for example, Ch'en, "Opium and Anglo-Chinese Relations," p. 423.

29. Fei Hsiao-t'ung and Chang Chih-i, Earthbound China: A Study of Rural Economy in Yunnan (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1945), p. 295.

30. Great Britain, Parliamentary Papers, 1894, Marcus Wood's testimony to the Royal Cotnmission on Opium, vol. 1, p. 49.

31. J. F. Bishop, The Yangtze Valley and Beyond: An Account of Journeys in China, Chiefly in the Province of Sze Chuan and Among the ManTze of the Samo Territory (London: John Murray, 1899), p. 509.

32. Great Britain, Parliamentary Papers, 189,t, Reverend Hudson Taylor's testimony to the Royal Commission on Opium, vol. 1, p. 30.

33. A. E. Moule, "Essay: The Use of Opium and Its Bearing on the Spread of Christianity in China," in Records of the General Conference of the Protestant Missionaries in China Held at Shanghai, May 10-24, 1877 (Shanghai, 1878), pp. 352-362.

34. Reverend R. Wardlaw Thompson, quoting Griffith John in Griffith John: The Story of Fifty Years in China (London: The Religious Tract Society, 1906), p. 408. For an account of the missionary campaign against opium in the late nineteenth century, see Hilary J. Beattie, "Protestant Missions and Opium in China 1858-1895," in Harvard Papers on China 22A (May 1969), 104-133.

35. See Great Britain, Parliamentary Papers, 1894, The Royal Commission on Opium, particularly the introductory section in the first volume on the purpose of the commission. See also Great Britain, India Office Private Secretary, "Opium Commission," April 24, 1895, in Home Office Archives (HO 45/9875/1315025).

36. Ch'en, "Opium and Anglo-Chinese Relations," p. 430.

37. An excellent account of this period is Mary C. Wright's introduction to the volume she edited, China in Revolution: The First Phase 19001911 (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1969).

38. Government of India Finance Department to Morley, Secretary of State for India, February 21, 1907 (F0228/2416), pp. 1-2.

39. Sir Edward Grey, Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs, to Sir John Jordan, His Majesty's Minister Peking, telegram ref. no. 180, October 1906 (FO 228/2415).

40. For example, see Hewett, Hong Kong, to Sir Edward Grey, telegram ref. no. 20787, June 10, 1910 (FO 228/2432).

41. Ch'en, "Opium and Anglo-Chinese Relations," p. 432.

42. See Alexander Hosie, On the Trail of the Opium Poppy (London: George Philip and Son, 1914), esp. vol. 2, app. pp. 232 ff.

43. Ritchie, India Office to Foreign Office, Confidential, October 2, 1910, (FO 228/2435).

44. "List of Provinces Closed to Opium," 1916 (170 228/2463).

45. Beattie, "Protestant Missions and Opium in China 1858-1895," p. 121, citing Records of the General Conference of the Protestant Missionaries of China held at Shanghai May 7-20, 1890, pp. 356-359.

46. Morse, The Trade and Administration of China, p. 379.

47. Cited in F. D. Lugard, "Memorandum Regarding the Restriction of Opium in Hong Kong and China," March 11, 1909 (FO 228/2425).

48. Morse, The Trade and Administration of China, p. 380.

49. League of Nations, Advisory Committee on the Traffic in Opium and Other Dangerous Drugs, Annual Reports on the Traffic in Opium and Other Dangerous Drugs for the Year 1932, p. 109.

50. Peking and Tientsin Times, June 11, 1909, p. 7.

51. The International Anti-Opium Association (Peking), The War Against Opium (Tientsin: Tientsin Press, 1922), p. 49.

52. Finance Commission Office, Burma, to Revenue Secretary to the Government of Burma, August 12~ 1920 (FO 228/3362).

53. Eastes, Tengyueh no. 8, March 21, 1918 (170 228/3357).

54. Fei and Chang, Earthbound China: A Study of Rural Economy in Yunnan,pp.282-283.

55. H. W. Sammon, Yunnanfu no. 26, October 22, 1912 (FO 228/2451).

56. "L'Opium A Nos Fronti6res" in the Depeche Coloniale (Indochina) enclosed in Carlisle, Saigon no. 5 political. September 23, 1912 (170 228/ 2451).

57. G. E. Morrison, quoted in Cyril Pearl, Morrison of Peking (Harmondsworth, England: Penguin Books, 1970), p. 137.

58. The International Anti-Opium Association (Peking), The War Against Opium, p. 43.

59. "Opium in Yunnan'~-Seventh Report enclosed in Fox, Yunnanfu no. 34, June 30, 1913 (FO 228/2455).

60. Eastes, Tengyueh no. 3, "Opium Report for December Quarter," 1916 (170 228/2465).

61. Eastes, Tengyuch no. 20 (confidential), July 21, 1916 (FO 228/2465).

62. Eastes, Tengyueh no. 25, October 16, 1918 (170 228/3357).

63. G. E. Morrison, quoted in Pearl, Morrison of Peking, p. 371.

64. League of Nations, Annual Reports on the Traffic in Opium and Other Dangerous Drugs for the Year 1924, Annex 3, Reports from the Chinese High Commissioners, p. 13.

65. "Opium-General Review," in H. G. W. Woodhead, ed., The China Yearbook 1925-1927 (Tientsin: Tientsin Press, 1927), pp. 620-647, 643-644.

66. League of Nations, Advisory Committee, Analysis of the International Trade in Morphine, Diacetylmorphine and Cocaine for the Years 1925-1929, 1931, p, 39.

67. League of Nations, Advisory Committee, Opium and Other Dangerous Drugs, 12th Session, 1929, Annex 3, p. 202.

68. League of Nations, Permanent Central Opium Committee, Statistics for the Year 1930, pp. 102 ff.

69. League of Nations, Advisory Committee, Annual Reports for the Year 1932, 1934, p. 58. Interview with John Warner, Chief, Strategic Intelligence Office, Bureau of Narcotics and Dangerous Drugs, Washington, D.C., October 14, 1971 (Alfred W. McCoy, interviewer).

70. Tadao Sakai, "Le Hongbang (Bande rouge) aux XIXe et XXe Si6cl,s,,, in Chesneaux, Davis, Ho, eds., Mouvements populaires et Socijtis secr~tes en Chine aux XjXe et XXe Si~cles, pp. 316-343, 316.

71. Y. C. Wang, "Tu Yueh-sheng (1888-1951): A Tentative Political Biography" in Journal of Asian Studies 26, no. 3 (May 1967), 433455. 435. Much of this study is based on a memoir written by one of Tu's private secretaries (see note 91 below).

72. Harold Isaacs, The Tragedy of the Chinese Revolution, 2nd rev. ed. (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1961), p. 142,

73. Wang, "Tu Yueh-sheng (1888-1951): A Tentative Political Biography," p. 436.

74. Isaacs, The Tragedy of the Chinese Revolution, pp. 135 ff.

75. Ibid., pp. 145, 151. Emily Hahn, Chiang Kai-shek: an Unauthorized Biography (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1955), pp. 110-111. (Hahn's treatment is generally sympathetic toward Chiang, yet her account of his Shanghai coup closely resembles other less favorable treatments such as Isaacs'.)

76. Isaacs, The Tragedy of the Chinese Revolution, pp. 145 ff.

77. Wang, "Tu Yueh-sheng (1888-1951): A Tentative Political Biography," p. 437. Cf. Harold Isaacs, "Gang Rule in Shanghai," The China Forum, May 1932, pp. 17-18, 17.

78. Wang, "Tu Yueh-sheng (1888-1951): A Tentative Political Biography," p. 437.

79. Isaacs, The Tragedy of the Chinese Revolution, pp, 175 ff.

80. Isaacs, "Gang Rule in Shanghai," p. 18.

81. Wang, "Tu Yueh-sheng (1888-1951): A Tentative Political Biography," p. 437.

82. Edgar Snow, The Battle for Asia (New York: Random House, 1941), p. 7 9.

83. Isaacs, "Gang Rule in Shanghai," p. 18.

84. Garfield Huang, "Three Aspects of China's Opium Problem," The Chinese Recorder and Missionary Journal 16, July 1930, pp. 407-415. (This estimate and other figures dealing with the KMT's involvement in the opium trade are speculative. Not surprisingly, no official figures are available.)

85. Wang, "Tu Yueh-sheng (1888-1951): A Tentative Political Biography," p. 442. According to Isaacs, Tu dropped out of the trade in deference to the KMT government's wish to strengthen its own control over the opium traffic ("Gang Rule in Shanghai," p. 18).

86. League of Nations, Advisory Committee, Annual Reports for the Year 1934, 1936, p. 90.

87. 1 am indebted to John Hall of the Contemporary China Institute, London, for this theory.

88. Loss of opium revenue was one of the motives behind Kwangsi's 1936 agitation against the Nationalist regime (F. T. Merrill, Japan and the Opium Menace [New York: The Institute of Pacific Relations and the Foreign Policy Association, 1942], p. 33).

89. Ibid., p. 32.

90. League of Nations, Advisory Committee, Report to the Council ort the Work of the 24th Session, 1939, pp. 9-10.

91. Wang, "Tu Yueh-sheng (1888-1951): A Tentative Political Biography," p. 445, citing Shih-i (pseudonym for Hu Hsij-wu), Tu Yuehsheng wai chuan (Hong Kong, 1962), pp. 51-53. (Hu Hsij-wu was a private secretary to Tu Yueh-sheng.)

92. Theodore White and Annalee Jacoby, Thunder Out of China (New York: William Sloane Associates, 1946), p. 311.

93. Harrison Forman, Report from Red China (London: Robert Hale, 1946), p. 10.

94. For an account of how the campaign operated in one area, see Alan Winnington, The Slaves of the Cool Mountains: The Ancient Social Conditions and Changes Now in Progress on the Remote Southwestern Borders of China (London: Lawrence and Wishart, 1959).

95. Interview with Mr. Graham Crookdake, Hong Kong, July 5, 1971 (Alfred W. McCoy, intervie~ver). (See appendix to Chapter 4.)